In the Southern Ocean, subsurface chlorophyll maxima (SCMs) can indicate deep accumulations of phytoplankton. Recent observations of subsurface chlorophyll fluorescence maxima (SFMs) from a large network of biogeochemical Argo (BGC-Argo) floats suggest that Southern Ocean SCMs are widespread. However, the attribution of SFMs to SCMs is not trivial, and SFMs are often observed without the presence of subsurface biomass maxima (SBMs), where biomass is quantified by particulate organic carbon. Consequently, it is questionable if these widespread SFMs represent increased phytoplankton biomass or if they are formed by intracellular processes that alter chlorophyll fluorescence, without a concurrent increase in biomass, such as photo-acclimation or non-photochemical quenching. This study builds confidence in the interpretation of SFMs as SCMs and finds their widespread occurrence of SCMs in the Southern Ocean during summer. We identify SCMs from ship-based chlorophyll sampling and SFMs from fluorometers using a distributional shape-based clustering method which achieves consistent results between ship and BGC-Argo float datasets. Ship data reveal a 15 % disagreement in the identification of SFMs as SCMs. We attribute these uncertainties to non-photochemical quenching corrections and increases in chlorophyll fluorescence yields with depth. In the overlying waters above these SCMs we find increased non-algal contributions to bio-optical POC in the upper mixed layer. These non-algal stocks obscure deep accumulations of phytoplankton biomass and result in the decoupling of SBMs from SCMs in a way that cannot be explained by increases in intracellular chlorophyll fluorescence with depth.

Deep Chlorophyll Maxima (DCMs) are ubiquitous in low-latitude oceans, and of recognized biogeochemical and ecological importance. DCMs have been observed in the Southern Ocean, initially from ships and recently from profiling robotic floats, but with less understanding of their onset, duration, underlying drivers, or whether they are associated with enhanced biomass features. We report the characteristics of a DCM and DBM (Deep Biomass Maximum) in the Inter-Polar-Frontal-Zone (IPFZ) south of Australia from CTD profiles, shipboard-incubated samples, a towbody, and a BGC-ARGO float. The DCM and DBM were ~20 m thick and co-located with the nutricline, in the vicinity of a subsurface ammonium maximum characteristic of the IPFZ, but ~100 m shallower than the ferricline. Towbody transects demonstrated that the co-located DCM/DBM was broadly present across the IPFZ. Large healthy diatoms, with low iron requirements, resided within the DCM/DBM, and fixed up to 20 mmol C m-2 d-1. The BGC-ARGO float revealed the DCM/DBM persisted for >3 months. We propose a dual environmental mechanism to drive DCM/DBM formation and persistence within the IPFZ: sustained supply of both recycled iron within the subsurface ammonium maxima and upward silicate transport from depth. DCM/DBM cell-specific growth rates were considerably slower than those in the overlying mixed layer, implying that phytoplankton losses are also reduced, possibly as a result of heavily silicified diatom frustules. The light-limited seasonal termination of the observed DCM/DBM did not result in a ‘diatom dump’, rather ongoing diatom downward export occurred throughout its multi-month persistence.

Abstract Ocean Iron Fertilization (OIF) aims to remove carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere by stimulating phytoplankton carbon-fixation and subsequent deep ocean carbon sequestration in iron-limited oceanic regions. Transdisciplinary assessments of OIF have revealed overwhelming challenges around the detection and verification of carbon sequestration and wide-ranging environmental side-effects, thereby dampening enthusiasm for OIF. Here, we utilize 5 requirements that strongly influence whether OIF can lead to atmospheric CO2 removal (CDR): The requirement (1) to use preformed nutrients from the lower overturning circulation cell; (2) for prevailing Fe-limitation; (3) for sufficient underwater light for photosynthesis; (4) for efficient carbon sequestration; (5) for sufficient air-sea CO2 transfer. We systematically evaluate these requirements using observational, experimental, and numerical data to generate circumpolar maps of OIF (cost-)efficiency south of 60°S. Results suggest that (cost-)efficient CDR is restricted to locations on the Antarctic Shelf. Here, CDR costs can be <100 US$/tonne CO2 while they are mainly >>1000 US$/tonne CO2 in offshore regions of the Southern Ocean, where mesoscale OIF experiments have previously been conducted. However, sensitivity analyses underscore that (cost-)efficiency is in all cases associated with large variability and are thus difficult to predict, which reflects our insufficient understanding of the relevant biogeochemical and physical processes. While OIF implementation on Antarctic shelves appears most (cost-)efficient, it raises legal questions because regions close to Antarctica fall under 3 overlapping layers of international law. Furthermore, the constraints set by efficiency and costs reduce the area suitable for OIF, thereby likely reducing its maximum CDR potential.