References:
  1. Ferreira AO, Cravo M. Sedation in gastrointestinal endoscopy: Where are we at in 2014? World J Gastrointest Endosc 2015; 7: 102-9
  2. Moon SH. Sedation regimens for gastrointestinal endoscopy. Clin Endosc 2014; 47: 135-40
  3. Fanti L, Gemma M, Agostoni M, et al. Target Controlled Infusion for non-anaesthesiologist propofol sedation during gastrointestinal endoscopy: The first double blind randomized controlled trial. Dig Liver Dis 2015; 47: 566-71
  4. Song JC, Lu ZJ, Jiao YF, et al. Etomidate Anesthesia during ERCP Caused More Stable Haemodynamic Responses Compared with Propofol: A Randomized Clinical Trial. Int J Med Sci 2015; 12: 559-65
  5. Angsuwatcharakon P, Rerknimitr R, Ridtitid W, et al. Cocktail sedation containing propofol versus conventional sedation for ERCP: a prospective, randomized controlled study. BMC Anesthesiol 2012; 12: 20
  6. Jung M, Hofmann C, Kiesslich R, et al. Improved sedation in diagnostic and therapeutic ERCP: propofol is an alternative to midazolam. Endoscopy 2000; 32: 233-8
  7. Kongkam P, Rerknimitr R, Punyathavorn S, et al. Propofol infusion versus intermittent meperidine and midazolam injection for conscious sedation in ERCP. J Gastrointestin Liver Dis 2008; 17: 291-7
  8. Faigel DO, Baron TH, Goldstein JL, et al. Guidelines for the use of deep sedation and anesthesia for GI endoscopy. Gastrointest Endosc 2002; Nov;56(5):613-7
  9. Li S, Yu F, Zhu H, et al. The median effective concentration (EC50) of propofol with different doses of fentanyl during colonoscopy in elderly patients. BMC Anesthesiol 2016; 16: 24
  10. Saad Z, Hibar D, Fedgchin M, et al. Effects of Mu-Opiate Receptor Gene Polymorphism rs1799971 (A118G) on the Antidepressant and Dissociation Responses in Esketamine Nasal Spray Clinical Trials. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2020; 23: 549-558
  11. Jonkman K, van Rijnsoever E, Olofsen E, et al. Esketamine counters opioid-induced respiratory depression. Br J Anaesth 2018; 120: 1117-1127
  12. Eberl S, Koers L, van Hooft J, et al. The effectiveness of a low-dose esketamine versus an alfentanil adjunct to propofol sedation during endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography: A randomised controlled multicentre trial. Eur J Anaesthesiol 2020; 37: 394-401
  13. Wang J, Huang J, Yang S, et al. Pharmacokinetics and Safety of Esketamine in Chinese Patients Undergoing Painless Gastroscopy in Comparison with Ketamine: A Randomized, Open-Label Clinical Study. Drug Des Devel Ther 2019; 13: 4135-4144
  14. Hanley C, Zerbolio DJ. Developmental changes in five illusions measured by the up-and-down method. Child Dev 1965; 36: 437-52
  15. Manolaraki MM, Theodoropoulou A, Stroumpos C, et al. Remifentanil compared with midazolam and pethidine sedation during colonoscopy: a prospective, randomized study. Dig Dis Sci 2008; 53: 34-4
  16. Pace NL, Stylianou MP. Advances in and limitations of up-and-down methodology: a précis of clinical use, study design, and dose estimation in anesthesia research. Anesthesiology 2007; 107: 144-52
  17. Fu F, Chen X, Feng Y, et al. Propofol EC50 for inducing loss of consciousness is lower in the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. Br J Anaesth 2014; 112: 506-13
  18. Scheller MS, Saidman LJ, Partridge BL. MAC of sevoflurane in humans and the New Zealand white rabbit. Can J Anaesth 1988; 35: 153-6
  19. Rampil IJ, Lockhart SH, Zwass MS, et al. Clinical characteristics of desflurane in surgical patients: minimum alveolar concentration. Anesthesiology 1991; 74: 429-33
  20. Levitt C, Wei H. Supraglotic pulsatile jet oxygenation and ventilation during deep propofol sedation for upper gastrointestinal endoscopy in a morbidly obese patient. J Clin Anesth 2014; 26: 157-9
  21. Wehrmann T, Kokabpick S, Lembcke B, et al. Efficacy and safety of intravenous propofol sedation during routine ERCP: a prospective, controlled study. Gastrointest Endosc 1999; 49: 677-83
  22. Standards of Practice Committee of the American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy, Lichtenstein DR, Jagannath S, et al. Sedation and anesthesia in GI endoscopy. Gastrointest Endosc 2008; 68: 815-26
  23. Claeys MA, Gepts E, Camu F. Haemodynamic changes during anaesthesia induced and maintained with propofol. Br J Anaesth 1988; 60: 3-9
  24. Gragasin FS, Davidge ST. The effects of propofol on vascular function in mesenteric arteries of the aging rat. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2009; 297: H466-74
  25. Memtsoudis SG, The AH, Heerdt PM. Autonomic mechanisms in the age-related hypotensive effect of propofol. Anesth Analg 2005; 100: 111-5
  26. John AD, Sieber FE. Age associated issues: geriatrics. Anesthesiol Clin North Am 2004; 22: 45-58
  27. You AH, Kim JY, Kim DH, et al. Effect of remifentanil and midazolam on ED95 of propofol for loss of consciousness in elderly patients: A randomized, clinical trial. Medicine (Baltimore) 2019; 98: e15132
  28. Dahaba AA, Zhong T, Lu HS, et al. Geographic differences in the target-controlled infusion estimated concentration of propofol: bispectral index response curves. Can J Anaesth 2011; 58: 364-70
  29. Irwin MG, Hui TW, Milne SE, et al. Propofol effective concentration 50 and its relationship to bispectral index. Anaesthesia 2002; 57: 242-8
  30. Mortero RF, Clark LD, Tolan MM, et al. The effects of small-dose ketamine on propofol sedation: respiration, postoperative mood, perception, cognition, and pain. Anesth Analg 2001; 92: 1465-9
  31. Vallejo MC, Romeo RC, Davis DJ, et al. Propofol-ketamine versus propofol-fentanyl for outpatient laparoscopy: comparison of postoperative nausea, emesis, analgesia, and recovery. J Clin Anesth 2002; 14: 426-31
  32. Eberl S, Koers L, van Hooft JE, et al. Sedation with propofol during ERCP: is the combination with esketamine more effective and safer than with alfentanil? Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials 2017; 18: 472
  33. Doherty T, Wajs E, Melkote R, et al. Cardiac Safety of Esketamine Nasal Spray in Treatment-Resistant Depression: Results from the Clinical Development Program. CNS Drugs 2020; 34: 299-310
  34. Vaessen HHB, Knuttel FM, van Breugel JMM, et al. Moderate-to-deep sedation technique, using propofol and ketamine, allowing synchronised breathing for magnetic resonance high-intensity focused ultrasound (MR-HIFU) treatment for uterine fibroids: a pilot study. J Ther Ultrasound 2017; 5: 8
Table 1 Characteristics of participants.