Data Availability Statement
Data will be archived in movebank at time of publication.
Acknowledgements
Our study was funded by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, the National Geographic Society, the Polar Continental Shelf Program, the University of Manitoba Fieldwork Support Program, the Churchill Northern Studies Centre (CNSC) Northern Research Fund, and the Oakes-Riewe Environmental Studies Research Award. We thank Parks Canada, the CNSC and Manitoba’s Wildlife Branch for their logistic and administrative assistance. We thank the northern trappers, Manitoba Conservation in Gillam, and the Nunavut wildlife office in Arviat for informing us on the fate of collared foxes. We are thankful to Audrey Moizan, Megan Dudenhoeffer, Jill Larkin, Dave Allcorn, LeeAnn Fishback, Grant Fredlund, Sean Johnson-Bice, David Couper, Jack Batstone, Bill Burger, and Vince Crichton for greatly appreciated assistance during this study.
References
Altman, D.G., and Bland, J.M. 1995. Statistics notes: Absence of evidence is not evidence of absence. BMJ 311 (7003): 485.
Andersen, D.E., Bergh, S., Baldwin, F., Nelson, F., Cole, J., Ratson, M., Vasek, C., Endrizzi, D., Walker, D., Roth, J.D., and McDonald, R.S. 2010. Production of EPP Canada geese near Cape Churchill in 2010. Unpublished Parks Canada report.
Andriashek, D., Kiliaan, H.P.L., and Taylor, M.K. 1985. Observations on foxes, Alopex lagopus and Vulpes vulpes , and wolves, Canus lupus, on the off-shore sea ice of Northern Labrador. Can. Field-Naturalist 99 (1): 86–89.
Avgar, T., Street, G., and Fryxell, J.M. 2014. On the adaptive benefits of mammal migration. Can. J. Zool. 92 : 481–490.
Barraquand, F., and Benhamou, S. 2008. Animal movements in heterogenous landscapes: Identifying profitable places and homogenous movememtn bouts. Ecology 89 (12): 3336–3348.
Bartoń, K.A., and Zalewski, A. 2007. Winter severity limits red fox populations in Eurasia. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 16 (3): 281–289.
Bates, D., Mächler, M., Bolker, B.M., and Walker, S.C. 2015. Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. J. Stat. Softw. 67 (1): 1–48.
Bilodeau, F., Gauthier, G., and Berteaux, D. 2013. The effect of snow cover on lemming population cycles in the Canadian High Arctic. Oecologia 172 : 1007–1016.
Brook, R.K., and Kenkel, N.C. 2002. A multivariate approach to vegetation mapping of Manitoba’s Hudson Bay Lowlands. Int. J. Remote Sens. 23 (21): 4761–4776.
Callaghan, T. V, Bjorn, L.O., Chernov, Y., Chapin, T., Christensen, T.R., Huntley, B., Ims, R. a, Johansson, M., Jolly, D., Jonasson, S., Matveyeva, N., Panikov, N., Oechel, W., Shaver, G., Elster, J., Henttonen, H., Laine, K., Taulavuori, K., Taulavuori, E., and Zockler, C. 2004. Climate change and UV-B Impacts on Arcitc tundra and polar desert ecosystems: Biodiversity, distributions and adaptations of arctic species in the conext of environmental change. Ambio 33 (7): 404–414.
Careau, V., Giroux, J.F., and Berteaux, D. 2007a. Cache and carry: hoarding behavior of arctic fox. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 62 (1): 87–96.
Careau, V., Morand-Ferron, J., and Thomas, D.D. 2007b. Basal metabolic rate of canidae from hot deserts to cold Arctic climates. J. Mammal.88 (2): 394–400.
Cargill, S.M., and Jefferies, R.L. 1984. The effects of grazing by lesser snow geese on the vegetation of a sub-Arctic salt marsh. J. Appl. Ecol. 21 (2): 669–686.
Celis-Murillo A, M Malorodova, E Nakash. 2020. North American Bird Banding Dataset 2017-2019 retrieved 2020-08-12. U.S. Geological Survey, Eastern Ecological Science Center at the Patuxent Research Refuge.
Ehrich, D., Schmidt, N.M., Gauthier, G., Alisauskas, R., Angerbjörn, A., Clark, K., Ecke, F., Eide, N.E., Framstad, E., Frandsen, J., Franke, A., Gilg, O., Giroux, M.A., Henttonen, H., Hörnfeldt, B., Ims, R.A., Kataev, G.D., Kharitonov, S.P., Killengreen, S.T., Krebs, C.J., et al. 2020. Documenting lemming population change in the Arctic: Can we detect trends? Ambio 49 : 786–800.
Eide, N.E., Jepsen, J.U., and Prestrud, P. 2004. Spatial organization of reproductive Arctic foxes Alopex lagopus : Responses to changes in spatial and temporal availability of prey. J. Anim. Ecol.73 (6): 1056–1068.
Fauteux, D., Gauthier, G., and Berteaux, D. 2015. Seasonal demography of a cyclic lemming population in the Canadian Arctic. J. Anim. Ecol.84 : 1412–1422.
Ferreras, P., Delibes, M., Palomares, F., Fedriani, J.M., Calzada, J., and Revilla, E. 2004. Proximate and ultimate causes of dispersal in the Iberian lynx Lynx pardinus . Behav. Ecol. 15 (1): 31–40.
Fuglei, E., and Øritsland, N.A. 1999. Seasonal trends in body mass, food intake and resting metabolic rate, and induction of metabolic depression in arctic foxes (Alopex lagopus ) at Svalbard. J. Comp. Physiol. - B Biochem. Syst. Environ. Physiol. 169 (6): 361–369.
Fuglei, E., and Tarroux, A. 2019. Arctic fox dispersal from Svalbard to Canada: One female’s long run across sea ice. Polar Res. 38 : 3512. Norwegian Polar Institute.
Fuglesteg, B.N., Haga, Ø.E., Folkow, L.P., Fuglei, E., and Blix, A.S. 2006. Seasonal variations in basal metabolic rate, lower critical temperature and responses to temporary starvation in the arctic fox (Alopex lagopus ) from Svalbard. Polar Biol. 29 (4): 308–319.
Gallant, D., Lecomte, N., and Berteaux, D. 2020. Disentangling the relative influences of global drivers of change in biodiversity: A study of the twentieth-century red fox expansion into the Canadian Arctic. J. Anim. Ecol. 89 : 565–576.
Gallant, D., Slough, B.G., Reid, D.G., and Berteaux, D. 2012. Arctic fox versus red fox in the warming Arctic: Four decades of den surveys in north Yukon. Polar Biol. 35 (9): 1421–1431.
Getz, W.M., Fortmann-Roe, S., Cross, P.C., Lyons, A.J., Ryan, S.J., and Wilmers, C.C. 2007. LoCoH: Nonparameteric Kernel methods for constructing home ranges and utilization distributions. PLoS One2 (2): e207.
Goszczyński, J. 2002. Home ranges in red fox: Territoriality diminishes with increasing area. Acta Theriol. (Warsz). 47 (SUPPL. 1): 103–114.
Hersteinsson, P., and Macdonald, D.W. 1992. Interspecific competition and the geographical distribution of red and Arctic foxes Vulpes vulpes and Alopex lagopus . Oikos 64 (3): 505–515.
Hervé, M. 2021. RVAideMemoire: testing and plotting procedures for biostatistics. R package version 0.9-79. Available from https://cran.r-project.org/package=RVAideMemoire.
Hochheim, K., Barber, D.G., and Lukovich, J. V. 2010. Changing sea ice conditions in hudson bay, 1980-2005. In A Little Less Arctic: Top Predators in the World’s Largest Northern Inland Sea, Hudson Bay.Edited by S.H. Ferguson, L.L. Loseto, and M.L. Mallory. Springer. pp. 39–51.
Hsiung, A.C., Boyle, W.A., Cooper, R.J., and Chandler, R.B. 2018. Altitudinal migration: ecological drivers, knowledge gaps, and conservation implications. Biol. Rev. 93 : 2049–2070.
Jonzén, N., Knudsen, E., Holt, R.D., and Sæther, B. 2011. Uncertainty and predictability: the niches of migrants and nomads. In Animal Migration: a synthesis, Oxford Uni. Edited by E.J. Milner-Gulland, J.M. Fryxell, and A.R. Sinclair. pp. 91–109.
Kidawa, D., and Kowalczyk, R. 2011. The effects of sex, age, season and habitat on diet of the red fox Vulpes vulpes in northeastern Poland. Acta Theriol. (Warsz). 56 : 209–218.
Killengreen, S.T., Schott, T., Yoccoz, N.G., Lecomte, N., and Ims, R.A. 2011. The importance of marine vs. human-induced subsidies in the maintenance of an expanding mesocarnivore in the Arctic tundra. J. Anim. Ecol. 80 : 1049–1060.
Knaub, J.R. 1987. Practical interpretation of hypothesis test. Am. Stat.41 (3): 246–247.
Korpimäki, E., and Hongell, H. 1986. Partial migration as an adaptation to nest site scarcity and vole cycles in Tengmalm’s Owl Aegolius funereus . In Vår fågelvärld Suppl. pp. 85–92.
Krebs, C.J., Kenney, A.J., Gilbert, S., Danell, K., Angerbjörn, A., Erlinge, S., Bromley, R.G., Shank, C., and Carriere, S. 2002. Synchrony in lemming and vole populations in the Canadian Arctic. Can. J. Zool.
Lai, S., Bêty, J., and Berteaux, D. 2017. Movement tactics of a mobile predator in a meta-ecosystem with fluctuating resources: the arctic fox in the High Arctic. Oikos 126 (7): 937–947.
Lai, S., Warret Rodrigues, C., Gallant, D., Roth, J.D., and Berteaux, D. 2022. Red foxes at their northern edge: competition with the Arctic fox and winter movements. J. Mammal.: gyab164.
Linnell, J.D.C., Mattisson, J., and Odden, J. 2021. Extreme home range sizes among Eurasian lynx at the northern edge of their biogeographic range. Ecol. Evol. 11 (10): 5001–5009.
Löfgren, O., Hörnfeldt, B., and Carlsson, B.G. 1986. Site tenacity and nomadism in Tengmalm’s owl (Aegolius funereus (L.)) in relation to cyclic food production. Oecologia 69(3): 321–326.
López-Bao, J.V., Aronsson, M., Linnell, J.D.C., Odden, J., Persson, J., and Andrén, H. 2019. Eurasian lynx fitness shows little variation across Scandinavian human-dominated landscapes. Sci. Rep. 9 (1): 1–10.
Lyons, A.J., Turner, W.C., and Getz, W.M. 2013. Home range plus: A space-time characterization of movement over real landscapes. Mov. Ecol.1 (2): 1–14.
MacDonald, D.W. 1983. The ecology of carnivore social behaviour. Nature301 (5899): 379–384.
Macdonald, D.W., and Johnson, D.D.P. 2015. Patchwork planet: The resource dispersion hypothesis, society, and the ecology of life. J. Zool. 295 : 75–107.
Maher, C.R., and Lott, D.F. 2000. A review of ecological determinants of territoriality within vertebrate species. Am. Midl. Nat.143 (1): 1–29.
Marneweck, C., Marneweck, D.G., van Schalkwyk, O.L., Beverley, G., Davies-Mostert, H.T., and Parker, D.M. 2019. Spatial partitioning by a subordinate carnivore is mediated by conspecific overlap. Oecologia191 : 531–540.
Maude, G., Reading, R.P., and Harris, S. 2019. Fluctuating food resources and home ranges in brown hyaenas living in a semi-arid environment. J. Zool. 307 (1): 53–60.
McCarty, J.P. 2001. Ecological Consequences of Recent Climate Change. Conserv. Biol. 15 (2): 320–331.
McDonald, R.., Roth, J.., and Baldwin, F.. 2017. Goose persistence in fall strongly influences Arctic fox diet, but not reproductive success, in the southern Arctic. Polar Res. 36 (5): 1–9.
Mcloughlin, P.D., Ferguson, S.H., and Messier, F. 2000. Intraspecific variation in home range overlap with habitat quality: A comparison among brown bear populations. Evol. Ecol. 14 : 39–60.
Meia, J.S., and Weber, J.M. 1995. Home ranges and movements of red foxes in central Europe: stability despite environmental changes. Can. J. Zool. 73 (10): 1960–1966.
Messier, F. 1985. Solitary living and extraterritorial movements of wolves in relation to social status and prey abundance. Can. J. Zool.63 (2): 239–245.
Moizan, A. 2019. Factors influencing natal den selection by red foxes on the tundra of western Hudson Bay and impact on Arctic foxes. Masters’ Thesis, Université Paris Saclay, Sciences Sorbonne Université, Paris.
Mysterud, A., Loe, L.E., Zimmermann, B., Bischof, R., Veiberg, V., and Meisingset, E. 2011. Partial migration in expanding red deer populations at northern latitudes - a role for density dependence? Oikos120 : 1817–1825.
Nater, C.R., Eide, N.E., Pedersen, Å.Ø., Yoccoz, N.G., and Fuglei, E. 2021. Contributions from terrestrial and marine resources stabilize predator populations in a rapidly changing climate. Ecosphere12 (6): e03546.
Niedzielski, B., and Bowman, J. 2016. Home range and habitat selection of the female eastern wild Turkey at its northern range edge. Wildlife Biol. 22 (2): 55–63.
Pálsson, S., Hersteinsson, P., Unnsteinsdóttir, E.R., and Nielsen, Ó.K. 2016. Population limitation in a non-cyclic arctic fox population in a changing climate. Oecologia 180 (4): 1147–1157.
Ponomarenko, S., Quirouette, J., Sharma, R., and McLennan, D. 2014. Ecotype mapping report for Wapusk National Park. Monitoring and ecological Information. Natural Resource Conservation. Parks Canada, Gatineau, QC.
Post, E., Forchhammer, M.C., Bret-Harte, M.S., Callaghan, T. V., Christensen, T.R., Elberling, B., Fox, A.D., Gilg, O., Hik, D.S., Hoye, T.T., Ims, R.A., Jeppesen, E., Klein, D.R., Madsen, J., McGuire, A.D., Rysgaard, S., Schindler, D.E., Stirling, I., Tamstorf, M.P., Tyler, N.J.C., van der Wal, R., Welker, J., Wookey, P.A., Schmidt, N.M., and Aastrup, P. 2009. Ecological dynamics across the Arctic associated with recent climate change. Science (80-. ). 325 (5946): 1355–1358.
Powell, R.A. 2000. Animal home ranges and territories and home range estimators. In Research techniques in animal ecology.Edited by L. Boitani and T.K. Fuller. Columbia University Press. pp. 65–110.
Powell, R.A. 2012. Movements, home ranges, activity, and dispersal.In Ecology and conservation of carnivores: A handbook of techniques. Edited by L. Boitani and R.A. Powell. Oxford University Press, London, United Kingdom. pp. 188–217.
Powell, R.A., and Mitchell, M.S. 2012. What is a home range? J. Mammal.93 (4): 948–958.
Prestrud, P. 1991. Adaptations By the Arctic Fox (Alopex lagopus ) To the Polar Winter. Arctic 44 (2): 132–138.
Rioux, M.J., Lai, S., Casajus, N., Bêty, J., and Berteaux, D. 2017. Winter home range fidelity and extraterritorial movements of Arctic fox pairs in the Canadian High Arctic. Polar Res. 36 (supp1): 11.
Robillard, A., Therrien, J.F., Gauthier, G., Clark, K.M., and Bêty, J. 2016. Pulsed resources at tundra breeding sites affect winter irruptions at temperate latitudes of a top predator, the snowy owl. Oecologia181 : 423–433.
Rød-Eriksen, L., Skrutvold, J., Herfindal, I., Jensen, H., and Eide, N.E. 2020. Highways associated with expansion of boreal scavengers into the alpine tundra of Fennoscandia. J. Appl. Ecol. 57(9): 1861–1870.
Roshier, D.A., and Reid, J.R.W. 2003. On animal distributions in dynamic landscapes. Ecography (Cop.). 26 (4): 539–544.
Roth, JD 2002. Temporal variability in arctic fox diet as reflected in stable-carbon isotopes; the importance of sea ice. Oecologia133 (1): 70–77.
Roth, J.D. 2003. Variability in marine resources affects arctic fox population dynamics. J. Anim. Ecol. 72 (4): 668–676.
von Schantz, T. 1984. Spacing strategies, kin selection, and population regulation in altricial vertebrates. Oikos 42 (1): 48–58.
Sklepkovych, B.O., and Montevecchi, W.A. 1996. Food availability and food hoarding behaviour by red and Arctic foxes. Arctic 49 (3): 228–234.
Soulsbury, C.D., Baker, P.J., Iossa, G., and Harris, S. 2008. Fitness costs of dispersal in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes ). Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 62 (8): 1289–1298.
Stark, D.J., Vaughan, I.P., Saldivar, D.A.R., Nathan, S.K.S.S., and Goossens, B. 2017. Evaluating methods for estimating home ranges using GPS collars: A comparison using proboscis monkeys (Nasalis larvatus ). PLoS One 12 (3): e0174891.
Storm, G.L., Andrews, R. iD, Phillips, R.L., Bishop, R.A., Siniff, D.B., and Tester, J.R. 1976. Morphology, reproduction, dispersal and mortality of midwestern red fox populations. Wildl. Monogr. 46 (49): 3–53.
Tannerfeldt, M., Angerbjörn, A., and Angerbjorn, A. 1998. Fluctuating resources and the evolution of litter size in the Arctic fox. Oikos83 (3): 545–559.
Tape, K.D., Christie, K., Carroll, G., and O’Donnell, J.A. 2016. Novel wildlife in the Arctic: The influence of changing riparian ecosystems and shrub habitat expansion on snowshoe hares. Glob. Chang. Biol.22 (1): 208–219.
Tarroux, A. 2011. Utilisation de l’espace et des ressources chez un carnivore terrestre de l’arctique: le renard polaire. PhD thesis, Rimouski, Québec, Université du Québec à Rimouski.
Therneau, T.M. 2020. coxme: Mixed Effects Cox Models. R package version 2.2-16.
Trewhella, W.J., Harris, S., and McAllister, F.E. 1988. Dispersal distance, home-range size and population density in the red fox (Vulpes vulpes ): a quantitative analysis. J. Appl. Ecol.25 (2): 423–434.
Walton, Z., Samelius, G., Odden, M., and Willebrand, T. 2017. Variation in home range size of red foxesVulpes vulpes along a gradient of productivity and human landscape alteration. PLoS One 12 (4): e0175291.
Walton, Z., Samelius, G., Odden, M., and Willebrand, T. 2018. Long-distance dispersal in red foxes Vulpes vulpes revealed by GPS tracking. Eur. J. Wildl. Res. 64 : 64.
Zhao, S-T., Johnson-Bice S.M., and Roth J.D. Submitted . Foxes engineer hotspots of wildlife activity on the nutrient-limited Arctic tundra. Glob. Ecol. Conserv.