Additionally, our findings indicate a relatively low reproductive yield, as A. cantabrica only produces 3-4 seeds per flower (Fig. 5G), with notably larger seeds than most other Androsace species (Fig. 5H). These traits and restricted habitat distribution above 2,000 m highlight the species’ adaptation to its alpine environment and vulnerability to shifts in habitat quality and availability.

As detailed in Table 4, our population size estimates indicate around 100 individuals in the Peña Prieta subpopulation and approximately 2,500 in Tres Mares (TM), where we observed a decline in numbers likely due to pressures from nearby ski resorts and hiking trails. Other populations, including those in Hoya Continua (HC) and other small subpopulations, collectively estimate fewer than 6,000 individuals. Key threats toA. cantabrica include habitat encroachment from shrub expansion, particularly in areas that were once controlled by herbivory or fire, which are now dominated by taller vegetation (Figs. 6A-C). These encroaching shrubs — namely Vaccinium uliginosum L.,Juniperus communis var. saxatilis Pall., and Calluna vulgaris (L.) Hull (Figs. 6D–F) — create competitive pressures that limit the available light and space for A. cantabrica . Consequently, most individuals are observed growing along the margins of these shrubs.