Patient Selection
According to the national standardized diagnostic criteria for schistosomiasi28, the inclusion criteria for advanced schistosomiasis cases were: (1) history of repeated or prolonged exposure to infested water, or history of schistosomiasis treatment; (2) eggs found in the fecal examination, or positive serum immunology (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, ELISA); (3) portal hypertension syndrome resulting from hepatic fibrosis, splenomegaly ≥ Hackett grade 3, or splenomegaly of Hackett grade 2 with hypersplenism or upper gastrointestinal bleeding or varices of esophagus and fundus of the stomach; and (4) portal hypertension syndrome resulting from hepatic fibrosis or splenomegaly or ascites, which were caused by schistosomiasis. The inclusion criteria for chronic schistosomiasis cases were: (1) history of repeated or prolonged exposure to infested water, or history of schistosomiasis treatment; (2) eggs found in the fecal examination, or positive serum immunology (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, ELISA); (3) no obvious clinical symptoms, or intermittent abdominal pain, diarrhea or purulent blood stools, most were associated with hepatomegaly, mainly in the left lobe, and a few with splenomegaly. Exclusion criteria were pregnancy or diseases affecting the immune response (HIV, HTLV-1, and diabetes), individuals with other liver diseases associated with portal hypertension (e.g., hepatitis A, B, and C), and acute viral or bacterial infections at the time of blood collection, and patients who had not completed an immunologic evaluation.