Community composition
There was a significant effect of urbanisation on butterfly community composition (PERMANOVA: F 1,28 = 3.34; p = 0.003), with a clear separation between urban and rural sites in NMDS space (Figure 7A). There was also a significant effect of urbanisation on bird community composition (PERMANOVA: F 1,34 = 15.57, p < 0.001), with a clear separation between rural and urban sites in NMDS space (Figure 7B). Finally, there was a significant effect of urbanisation on vegetation community composition (PERMANOVA: F 1,132 = 4.81, p < 0.001), with a clear separation between urban and rural sites in NMDS space (Figure 7C). These results conclusively support our fourth hypothesis.