Community composition
There was a significant effect of urbanisation on butterfly community
composition (PERMANOVA: F 1,28 = 3.34; p =
0.003), with a clear separation between urban and rural sites in NMDS
space (Figure 7A). There was also a significant effect of urbanisation
on bird community composition (PERMANOVA: F 1,34 =
15.57, p < 0.001), with a clear separation between
rural and urban sites in NMDS space (Figure 7B). Finally, there was a
significant effect of urbanisation on vegetation community composition
(PERMANOVA: F 1,132 = 4.81, p <
0.001), with a clear separation between urban and rural sites in NMDS
space (Figure 7C). These results conclusively support our fourth
hypothesis.