Table 2 Neurocognitive measurements and outcomes
Reference (year) Type of intervention P: Neurocognitive tests Neurocognitive Domain Outcome Effect sizes
R: Reported neurocognitive and daily life questionnaires Domain
Riggs et al. (2017) Exercise training P: CANTAB - Rapid visual information processing - Match to sample visual search - Simple reaction time - Choice reaction time - Delayed matching to sample - Attention - Attention - Processing speed - Processing speed - Short-term memory Reaction time and accuracy were averaged across all subtests. Group setting: improvement of reaction time and carryover, improved fitness predicted reaction. Improved reaction time after training intervention was associated with increased fractional anisotropy integrity and hippocampal volume. No significant training effects for accuracy. N.R.
Szulc-Lerch et al. (2018) Exercise training P: CANTAB - Rapid visual information processing - Match to sample visual search - Simple reaction time - Choice reaction time - Delayed matching to sample - Attention - Attention - Processing speed - Processing speed - Short-term memory Reaction time and accuracy were averaged across all subtests. Increased cortical thickness (right hemisphere) was associated with improved performance of reaction time. Greater cortical thickness across the cortex was associated with decreased reaction time and improved short-term memory. N.R.
Cox et al. (2020) Exercise training P: MEG - Visual-motor Go- and Go/No-Go task - Response latency and accuracy Improvement of response accuracy during No-Go task. Significant changes in functional connectivity during Go/No-Go task. No significant change in response latency after exercise training. N.R.
Rath et al. (2018) Individually tailored exercise training P: WASI-II Cognitive function No significant improvement in cognitive function N.R.
R: ABAS-II ASEBA Adaptive function Mental health Improvement in several adaptive functions (community use, home living, health and safety, leisure, self-direction, and global adaptive) but no improvement in mental health. N.R.
Fontana et al. (2021) Purely physical or physical and attentional exercises P: CPT-II WISC-IV - Digit span - Letter-number sequencing - Coding - Symbols Tests of executive functions - Verbal fluency test - Figurative fluency test Stroop test Trial Making test CMS - Verbal long-term memory - Visuo-spatial long-term memory Inattentiveness, impulsivity, vigilance, and sustained attention - Working memory - Working memory - Processing speed - Processing speed - Initiation - Inhibition Planification processes Shifting - Verbal long-term memory - Visuo-spatial long-term memory No significant differences on test results were identified for type of intervention, or the sequence of the intervention. Significant changes in long-term memory (encoding and delayed recall of CMS). No significant difference between patients on- versus off- therapy were seen, nor between CNS tumor patients or others. N.R.
R: BRIEF CBCL RCMAS Executive behavior and emotional regulation Behavioral status Anxiety Significant difference appeared in mood and behavioral domains, with a significant decrease in anxiety, better emotional control, and organization but no difference for other executive processes. N.R.
Table 2 (continued)
Reference (year) Type of intervention P: Neurocognitive tests Neurocognitive Domain Outcome Effect sizes
R: Reported neurocognitive and daily life questionnaires Domain
Kanitz et al. (2013) Eurythmy Therapy P: Hamburg-WISC-IV or WIE BEERY VMI Full-scale IQ Visual-motor integration All patients improved for full-scale IQ and processing speed. Working memory index improved in 6/7 patients. Verbal comprehension improved in 3/7 patients. Perceptual reasoning improved in 5/7 patients. Visual-motor integration improved in 5/7 patients. Others deteriorated. N.R.
Patel et al. (2009) Cognitive and Problem-solving training P: WISC-III CPT WRAT– 3rd revision WJ ACH-Revised - writing samples - passage comprehension Auditory attention Sustained attention Written computational skills - Infer from short passages - Quality of written expression All neurocognitive scores consistently had some degree of improvement, writing samples test was significant. N.R.
R: SSRS CBCL Social behavior Behavior and emotional functioning All reported scores consistently had some degree of improvement, SSRS standard score was significant N.R.
Conklin et al. (2015) Cogmed P: WASI - Vocabulary - Matrix reasoning WISC-V - Spatial span - Digit span - Letter-number-sequencing CPT-II WJ III ACH - Reading fluency - Math fluency Abbreviated IQ Working memory Sustained attention Academic fluency Spatial span forwards (attention) and backwards (working memory) significantly improved, short-term, in the Cogmed group. Processing speed (CPT-reaction time) was significantly short-term improved. Academic fluency was not different in Cogmed group compared to control group. Effect size 0.65 Cohens’ d 0.03 – 0.84
R: CRS III (parents) BRIEF Inattention and executive functioning Working memory and metacognition Significant greater reduction in parent reported inattention and executive dysfunction in Cogmed group. Cohens’ d 0.36 – 0.84
Conklin et al. (2017) Cogmed P: WASI - Vocabulary - Matrix reasoning WISC-V - Spatial span - Digit span - Letter-number-sequencing CPT- II WJ III ACH - Reading fluency - Math fluency Abbreviated IQ Working memory Sustained attention Academic fluency Greater immediate improvement of attention (CPT-omissions). Higher pre-intervention IQ and more Cogmed training sessions were predictors for greater change in working memory outcomes (spatial span backwards). Stable performance on most measures between immediate postintervention and six-months postintervention except for spatial span forward (improved in Cogmed group) and CPT-omissions (declined in Cogmed group) N.R.
R: CRS III (parents) BRIEF Inattention and executive functioning Working memory and metacognition N.R. N.R.
Table 2 (continued)
Reference (year) Type of intervention P: Neurocognitive tests Neurocognitive Domain Outcome Effect sizes
R: Reported neurocognitive and daily life questionnaires Domain
Hardy et al. (2013) Cogmed or MegaMemo P: WASI WRAML 2 - Number Letter - Finger Windows - Symbolic Memory - Verbal Working Memory Intelligence - Attention/Concentration - Attention/Concentration - Working Memory - Working Memory Symbolic working memory (WARML2) significantly increased immediate post intervention in the adaptive group but was no longer significant 3-months after the end of the intervention. Around 1/3th of patients in adaptive group showed clinically meaningful increase on symbolic working memory. No other outcome was significantly different between the adaptive and nonadaptive group. Cohen’s d -0.21 - 1.22
R: CRS III - Inattention - Learning Attention and behavior Adaptive group showed greater improvement in learning problems (CRS), 45% reached clinical meaningful improvement, effect was not maintained after 3 months. Inattention did not significantly differ. Cohen’s d 0.21 - 0.38
Siciliano et al. (2021) Cogmed: adaptive or non-adaptive P: WASI-II WISC-V, working memory index (WMI) - Digit span - Letter Number sequencing NIH Toolbox CB - Dimensional Change Card Sort Test - Flanker Inhibitory Control and Attention Test - List Sorting Working Memory Test - Pattern Comparison Processing Speed Test - Picture Sequence Memory Test Intelligence - Working memory - Working memory - Cognitive flexibility and attention - Executive function and Inhibition - Working memory - Processing speed - Episodic memory WMI (WISC-V) significantly improved from 10.4 months post-surgery (pre-intervention) to 9.1 weeks post-intervention. Effects were not maintained at 14.5 weeks and 13 months post-intervention. NTCB fluid cognition composite scores were significantly improved at all timepoints (9.1 weeks, 14.5 weeks, and 13.5 months post-intervention) compared to pre-intervention. NTCB fluid cognition scores were significantly improved at at 14.5 weeks post-intervention compared to 9.1 weeks post-intervention. Adaptive and non-adaptive Cogmed group did not significantly differed. N.R.
R: BRIEF CBCL - Attention problems scale Executive function - Attention 13.5 months after intervention, adaptive group reported significant lower (improvement) on global executive composite scores of the parent-reported BRIEF compared to post-intervention. N.R.
Carlson-Green et al. (2017) Cogmed P: Automated Working Memory Assessment WJ ACH - applied problems - passage comprehension ability Visual-spatial and verbal working memory - Math problem solving - Reading comprehension abilities Extended training showed no significant improvement on Cogmed Training Index score. Six months following intervention, Digit recall, Word recall, Dot matrix, Spatial Recall, Block recall, Mr. X, and Spatial recall were significant improved (AWMA). Applied math was significantly improved (WJ-III). N.R.
R: CBCL BRIEF ABAS-II Emotional and behavior problems Executive functioning Adaptive functions Executive functioning, and subscales as working memory, inhibitory control, self-monitoring, and planning/organization were significantly improved (BRIEF). Significant reduction of symptoms of somatic complaints and attention (CBCL), and improved social skills (ABAS-II) were reported. N.R.
Peterson et al. (2022) Cogmed or JumpMath P: WISC-IV - Digit span backwards - Letter-number sequencing WARML2 - Symbolic working memory - Verbal working memo - Working Memory - Working Memory Academic Achievement - Working memory - Working memory JumpMath group scored significantly better on mathematics calculation (WJ-III) compared to control. Cogmed group did not differ compared to control. Cogmed group significantly improved on Digit span backwards (WISC-IV) and symbolic working memory subtest (WRAML2) compared to control. N.R.
Table 2 (continued)
Reference (year) Type of intervention P: Neurocognitive tests Neurocognitive Domain Outcome Effect sizes
R: Reported neurocognitive and daily life questionnaires Domain
WJ III ACH - Applied problem - Quantitative Concepts - Calculation - Math Fluency WASI-II Mathematics reasoning - Mathematics reasoning - Mathematics calculation - Mathematics calculation - Intelligence JumpMath group significantly improved on Digit span backwards (WISC-IV) compared to control.
Palmer et al. (2014) Fast ForWord P: WJ III ACH - Letter-Word identification - Word Attack Reading decoding No significant difference in change over time in reading decoding scores between intervention group and control. N.R.
Zou et al. (2016) Fast ForWord P: WJ III ACH - Sound awareness - Word Attack - Reading Fluency Reading abilities - Phonemic awareness - Grapheme awareness - Higher order reading efficiency and comprehension Declining trend in intervention and control group in all reading scores, except for sound awareness which was significantly higher in the intervention group at 2.9 years after intervention. N.R.
Hardy et al. (2011) Captain’s Log P: WISC-IV, WMI - Digit-span - Letter-number sequencing Working memory Trend of improved WMI (WISC-IV) over time, with significant improvement of digit span forward. Pre-intervention IQ and time trained were positively correlated with digit span forward scores. N.R.
R: CRS (parents) Attention and behavior Parent reported attentional problems significantly decreased over time. N.R.
Butler et al. (2008) Cognitive Remediation Program P: WRAT, 3rd revision - Reading decoding - Spelling - Arithmetic computation - Sentence memory WJ ACH, Revised - Calculation - Applied problems Peabod Individual Achievement Test, Revised - Reading Comprehension WISC-III - Arithmetic - Digit span, backwards CMS - Stories, delayed recall Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test, delayed recall Stroop Color-Word Test Trail Making Test B Brief Test of Attention - Academic achievement - Academic achievement - Academic achievement - Brief focused attention - Academic achievement - Academic achievement - Academic achievement - Academic achievement - Brief focused attention, Working Memory - Brief focused attention, Memory recall Brief focused attention, Memory recall Working memory Working memory Working memory Significant improvement of academic achievement index score in the CRP group, improvement was significant different compared to control. Both groups improved on Brief focused attention index score, Working memory index scores, Memory recall index scores, and Vigilance index score, no significant differences. No significant difference in Learning Index scores, CRP group did significantly acquire more Learning strategies. Effect size -0.70-1.04
Table 2 (continued)
Reference (year) Type of intervention P: Neurocognitive tests Neurocognitive Domain Outcome Effect sizes
R: Reported neurocognitive and daily life questionnaires Domain
Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test - Delayed Recall CPT- II Strategies Assessment Measure Memory recall Vigilance Learning
R: CRS Culture-Free Self-Esteem inventory Rating of attention Self-Esteem Parent reported cognitive problems, attention, and ADHD symptoms (CRS) were significantly improved. Teacher reported attention and cognitive problems (CRS) were significantly improved. Effect size -0.70-1.04
Zou et al. (2012) Cognitive Remediation Program P: CPT-II (fMRI) / Clinical competence index (CPT) significantly decreased after intervention. Cohen’s d -1.4- -0.6
R: CRS / Parent reported cognitive problems inattention and ADHD symptoms improved in both groups. The improvement in the CRP group was significant for parent reported CRS scores. Cohen’s d -0.6
Kesler et al. (2011) Cognitive Rehabilitation Curriculum P: WISC-IV or WAIS-III WRAT 2nd edition - List memory - Picture memory NEPSY II or D-KEFS WJ III - Cancellation Test Motor Free Test of Visual Perception, 3rd Edition Intellectual function - Verbal memory - Visual memory Cognitive flexibility - Attention and Processing speed Spatial relations visual discrimination, visual memory Significant increased processing speed index (WISC-IV or WAIS-III), Sort test (NEPSY II or DKEFS), List Memory (WRAML2), and Picture Memory (WRAML2) Effect size 0.29 – 1.1
Wade et al. (2020) A Survivor’s Journey P: WASI Intellectual functioning Average and above average IQ moderated improvement in self-reported BRIEF. N.R.
R: Center for Epidemiology Scale for Depression BRIEF PedsQL Depression Executive function Quality of life Self-reported emotional QoL (PedsQL) and parent reported total and physical QoL (PedsQL) were significantly improved after intervention. No effect on depressive or executive functions. Cohen’s d 0.04 - 0.58
De Ruiter et al. (2016) Neurofeedback training P: Attention Network Task Visual sequencing task WISC or WAIS - Digit span foreward - Digit span backwards Stop signal task Tracking and pursuit task Abbreviated WAIS-III or WAIS-III Attention and processing speed Memory - Memory - Working memory Inhibition (executive function) Visuomotor integration Intellectual functioning No beneficial neurocognitive effects were found. Both groups significantly improved for processing speed, visual sort-term memory, working memory, and intelligence. N.R.
Table 2 (continued)
Reference (year) Type of intervention P: Neurocognitive tests Neurocognitive Domain Outcome Effect sizes
R: Reported neurocognitive and daily life questionnaires Domain
R: Kidscreen 27 Strengths and difficulties questionnaires Self-perception profile for children/adolescents Checklist individual strengths BRIEF Strengths and weaknesses of ADHD-symptoms and normal-behavior Sleep disturbance scale for children HRQoL Social-emotional functioning Self-esteem Fatigue Behavioral and executive functioning Attention Sleep disturbance No effects of neurofeedback training over placebo N.R.
Thompson et al. (2001) Methylphenidate P: WISC-III or WAIS-III Abbreviated WIAT CPT California Verbal Learning Test WJ Cognitive Battery - Visual- Auditory Learning Test Global IQ Academic achievement Selective and sustained attention, reaction time and impulsivity Verbal learning and recall - Learning to read Errors of omission and overall index (CPT) were significantly improved in MPH group compared to control. Improvements in errors of commission and reaction time (CPT) were not significantly different between both groups. Non-significant trend of improved CVLT and VAL scores in MPH group. N.R.
Conklin et al. (2007) Methylphenidate P: CPT Stroop Word-Color Association Test California Verbal Learning Test-Children WJ Cognitive Battery - Visual-Auditory Learning Test WRAT Sustained attention Selective attention, impulsivity, and cognitive flexibility Verbal Memory measure - Learning and recall Mathematics Significant improvement was seen for Ink color naming time (STROOP) in MPH group compared to control N.R.
R: CRS SSRS Symptomatic ADHD behavior Social skills Parents and teachers reported significant improvement in inattention/ cognitive problems and ADHD index (CRS), for both low and high dose. Teachers reported significant improvement in hyperactive symptoms (CRS), social skills and academic competence (SSRS) in low and high dose, as well as significant improved problem behavior (SSRS) in high dose MPH administration. Effect size 0.37 – 0.73
Conklin et al. (2010) Methylphenidate R: CRS SSRS Symptomatic ADHD behavior Social skills 45.28% had a significant decreased teacher reported attention problems (CRS) on high dose MPH N.R.
Conklin, Reddick et al. (2010) Methylphenidate P: WISC-III or WAIS-III WIAT CPT Intellectual functioning Academic achievement Sustained attention Significant improvement of all CPT indices. No change of intellectual functioning (WISC-III or WAIS-III), and academic skills (WIAT). Spelling (WIAT) significantly declined. MPH group performed significantly better on CPT, parent- and self-reported attention CRS compared to control. N.R.
R: CRS SSRS Symptomatic ADHD behavior Social skills Significant improvement self-, parent- and teacher reported measures of attention, cognitive problems, and hyperactivity (CRS), except for teacher reported cognitive problems. Parents also reported significant improved N.R.
Table 2 (continued)
Reference (year) Type of intervention P: Neurocognitive tests Neurocognitive Domain Outcome Effect sizes
R: Reported neurocognitive and daily life questionnaires Domain
CBCL Social competence and behavior problems social skills (SRSS), and internalizing and externalizing psychopathology (CBCL). N.R.
Netson et al. (2011) Methylphenidate P: WIAT CPT Academic achievement Attention MPH group showed significant improvement of all CPT indices. N.R.
R: CRS Attention Demographic and treatment-related variables impacted parent- and teachers’ ratings of attention. Parent- and teacher- reported CRS improved after one month but significantly increased on 3-, 6- and 12 months. N.R.
Castellino et al. (2012) Donepezil P: WASI D-KEFS WRAML 2 CPT Woodcock Reading Mastery test WJ III Calculations Global Intelligence Executive Function Memory Sustained attention, concentration Achievement Achievement D-KEFS Tower Total, Towers Time Ratio, and Color/Word Inhibition were significantly improved. Visual Memory and Number/Letter scores were significantly improved (WRAML). Non-significant improvement of attention and concentration (CPT-II). Effect size -0.67 – 1.14
R: PedsQL Quality of Life Assessment BRIEF Behavior Assessment System for Children, 2nd edition Life Events Checklist Pediatric Inventory for parents HRQoL HRQoL Executive function Behavioral Adjustment Social competence Family impact Parent-reported executive function, plan/organize, ad working memory (BRIEF) was non-significant improved. Effect size -0.74 - -0.05
Abbreviations: CANTAB, Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery; MEG, Magnetoencephalography; WASI, Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence; ABAS, Adaptive Behavior Assessment Scale; CPT, Continuous Performance Test; WISC, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children; WAIS, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale; WIE, Wechsler Intelligenztest fur Erwachsene; CMS, Children Memory Scale; BRIEF, Behavioral Rating Inventory of Executive Function; ASEBA, Achenbach System Empirically Based Assessment; CBCL, Child Behavior Checklist; RCMAS, Revised child manifest anxiety scale; BEERY VMI, Beery-Buktenica Developmental test of visual-motor integration; WRAT, Wide range achievement test; WJ, Woodcock-Johnson; WJ ACH, Woodcock-Johnson Test of Achievement; CRS, Conners’ rating scale; WRAML, Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning; NIH Toolbox CB, National Institutes of Health Toolbox Cognition Battery; SSRS, Social skills rating system; D-KEFS, Delis Kaplan Executive System Sorting test; PedsQL, Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory; WIAT, Wechsler Individual Achievement Test; HRQol, Health Related Quality of Life; N.R., Not Reported