Ethical approval
The research ethical clearance for conducting this study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee at Sokoine University of Agriculture (Ref. No. SUA/ADM/R.1/8/967) issued on 29th December 2022. The permission to conduct research in Muheza was obtained from the Medical Research Coordinating Committee of the National Institute for Medical Research with reference number NIMR/HQ/R.8a/Vol. IX/4269 issued on 18th April 2023. Moreover, before commencing data collection in the study area, authorization was granted from all local authorities including Muheza district’s medical officer (DMO), and village chairmen. Human participants were verbally informed that their blood might be collected and tested for leptospirosis and verbal consent was obtained from them.