Accurec |
No stabilisation of cells or smaller batteries, as first step
is the removal of electrolyte through vacuum furnace with subsequent
distillation of electrolytes. Large battery packs are discharged before
dismantling to cell level. |
Thermal deactivation |
(Mossali, et al.,
2020), (Sommerville, et al., 2021), (Lv, et al., 2018), (Makwarimba, et
al., 2022) |
AEA Technology |
No stabilisation process, as the LIB are shredded in an
inert atmosphere and then organic solvent is used to remove electrolyte. |
Inert gas comminution |
(Mossali, et al., 2020) |
AkkuSer
|
Manual sorting followed by crushing combined with an air cyclone air to
remove the exhaust gases fast enough to prevent explosions/combustion
within the shredder.
There are differing opinions on whether the process uses an inert
atmosphere (Ekberg & Petranikova, 2015) or not (Valio, 2017).
|
Inert gas comminution
|
(Mossali, et al., 2020), (Pudas, et al., 2011)
|
Anhua Taisen Recycling |
No information available |
Unknown |
|
Ascend Elements (Battery Resourcers) |
Batteries are sorted based on SOH
and energy recovery is undertaken. An in-process stabilisation method is
used with a passivating or reducing gas such as carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, or argon. |
Energy recovery |
(Latini, et al., 2022), (Gratz
& Wang, 2022) |
Aurubis2
|
No information available |
Unknown |
|
Bangpu Ni/Co High-tech Co. |
Stabilisation of spent LIBs in brine
solution. |
Brine discharge |
(Natarajan & Aravindan,
2018) |
Batrec Industrie |
Stabilisation and storage of the batteries in water,
followed by wet shredding under water. The loading of cells into the
water is kept sufficiently low to ensure any hydrogen produced remains
below flash-point concentrations. |
Wet comminution |
(Rädecker,
2024) |
Battery Solutions3
|
“Room temperature, oxygen-free”
mechanical process to shred and separate the batteries. |
Inert gas
comminution |
(Kelleher Environmenatal, Gracestone Inc. & Millette
Environmental, 2019) |
BDT3
|
Batteries are crushed under a sodium hydroxide
solution without prior discharging. |
Wet comminution |
(Cardarelli &
Dube, 2001) |
CATL (Brunpt) |
No information on what technology is used in the
discharging of the batteries, but discharging is mentioned in the
recycling process. |
unknown |
(Sojka, et al., 2020; Jung, et al.,
2023) |
Cwenga Technologies2
|
Shredding of batteries under
aqueous calcium chloride solutions with gas recovery. |
Wet comminution |
(Linnenkoper, 2022) |
Dowa Eco-System |
Dismantling of packs and modules followed by
stabilisation of cells by thermal treatment prior to shredding. |
Thermal deactivation |
(Japan Partnership for Circular Economy, 2021;
Sojka, et al., 2020) |
Dussenfeld |
Energy recovery performed, but not full stabilisation, as
the batteries are shredded under a gas blanket (N2),
which is dried to dew point at 233 K before use. Electrolyte is removed
by vacuum drying. |
Inert gas comminution |
(Latini, et al., 2022),
(Mossali, et al., 2020), (Hanisch, 2016) |
EcoBat (G&P Batteries, Promesa)
|
According to Pinegar et al., the batteries are stabilised by
supercritical CO2 extraction of the electrolyte.
However, Träger et al. and Sojka et al state that after dismantling, a
thermal deactivation (pyrolysis) is used.
The Promesa process originally shredded the batteries under an aqueous
solution.
|
Thermal deactivation
|
(Träger, et al., 2015), (Sojka, et al., 2020), (Pinegar & Smith,
2019)
|
Ecopro |
Operate a discharging process for battery packs, modules and
cells before shredding. Little information about the technology used for
discharging. |
Unknown |
(ECOPRO, 2023) |
Erasteel Recycling (Valdi) |
Batteries are mixed with other feedstocks
before feeding to a smelter, and therefore no stabilisation is needed. |
No discharge - pyro |
(Latini, et al., 2022) |
ERLOS |
Stabilisation by energy recovery, followed by battery
dismantling. The cells are then opened in an inert atmosphere by robots
to allow reuse of the anodes and cathodes. |
Energy recovery |
(Sojka,
et al., 2020) |
Euro Dieuze Industrie (SARP) |
Stabilisation and storage of the
batteries in water, followed by wet shredding under water. |
Wet
comminution |
(Latini, et al., 2022; Sojka, et al., 2020) |
Farasis Energy2
|
Unspecified stabilisation process
followed by removal of the electrolyte. |
Unknown |
(Zheng,
2019) |
Fortum Oyj |
Batteries are stabilised electrically with energy recovery
before dismantling and mechanical processing. |
Energy recovery |
(Fortum Oyj, 2024) |
GHTech |
No information available |
Unknown |
|
Glencore (Xstrata) |
No stabilisation due to pyrometallurgical process.
No dismantling of LIBs to cell level. |
No discharge - pyro |
(Mossali,
et al., 2020), (Latini, et al., 2022; Makuza, et al.,
2021) |
Green Eco Manufacture (GEM) |
Batteries are discharged by immersion in a
sodium hydroxide solution before shredding. |
Brine discharge |
(Wang,
et al., 2011) |
Green Li-ion |
No battery processing, as Green Li-ion only accepts
black mass or production scrap. |
N/A |
(Green Li-ion Pte Ltd,
2020) |
GRS Batterien (Stiftung Gemeinsames Rücknahmesystem Batterien) |
No
stabilisation due to pyrometallurgical process. As the reference
material is from 2007, it is possible that the process has been revised
slightly but given the infrastructure in place it is unlikely that GRS
Batterein has moved away from pyrometallurgical processing. |
No
discharge - pyro |
(GRS Batterien, 2007) |
Guanghua Sci-Tech |
Batteries are dismantled and shredded. There is no
information on stabilisation of the batteries. |
Unknown |
(Sojka, et
al., 2020) |
Highpower International |
Batteries are shredded before pyro- and then
hydro-metallurgical processes, but no mention of whether the batteries
are stabilisation before recycling. |
Unknown |
(Sojka, et al.,
2020) |
Huayou Recycling |
Battery packs and modules are automatically
dismantled followed by crushing of the cells. There is no mention of any
discharging process. |
Unknown |
(Sojka, et al., 2020) |
Hydrovolt |
Discharging of the batteries to “0V” using ‘manual
processes’ before dismantling at present, but with an aim to automate
this process and recover the energy from the batteries. |
Energy
recovery |
(Mercom Capital, 2023) |
Inmetco |
The batteries are sorted, but there is no stabilisation
process due to pyrometallurgy used as initial process. Takacova et al.
(2023) states that thermal deactivation occurs through evaporation of
the electrolyte before the cells are crushed and added to the furnace. |
Thermal deactivation |
(Mossali, et al., 2020; Makuza, et al., 2021;
Takacova, et al., 2023) |
JX Nippon Mining & Metals Co. Ltd |
Incineration of the cells removes
the electrolyte and renders the cells inactive. |
Thermal deactivation |
(Makuza, et al., 2021) |
Kobar |
Batteries are stabilised, crushed, and screened before leaching. |
Unknown |
(Sojka, et al., 2020) |
Kyoei Seiko |
Batteries are not stabilised before co-processing, and
therefore are only added as a small percentage of the feed to the
electric arc furnace. |
No discharge - pyro |
(Sojka, et al.,
2020) |
LiCycle |
Submersion in a solution of Ca(OH)2 and NaCl
for discharging and shredding. |
Brine discharge |
(Latini, et al.,
2022) |
Lithion Recycling |
Wet shredding in a light organic solvent with no
prior stabilisation, followed by thermal drying to remove solvent and
recover electrolytes. |
Wet comminution |
(Latini, et al.,
2022) |
LithoRec (Chemetall Lithium, Albemarle Germany) |
Energy recovery
stabilisation method followed by to short circuiting for 24 h to
minimise the relaxation voltage of the batteries. The batteries are then
dismantled to cell level and shredded under a nitrogen atmosphere. |
Energy recovery |
(Makwarimba, et al., 2022; Latini, et al., 2022; Nowak
& Winter, 2017) |
Metal-Tech Ltd3
|
No information available.
Website refers only to tungsten business. |
Unknown |
(Metal-Tech,
2018) |
Neometals |
Stabilisation using a brine solution (salt used is not
disclosed). |
Brine discharge |
(Latini, et al., 2022) |
Nickelhütte Aue |
Thermal treatment of LIBs, with no mention of
stabilisation of the batteries. |
No discharge - pyro |
(Sojka, et al.,
2020) |
Nippon Recycle Centre Corp. |
No information available |
Unknown |
|
Northvolt AB (Revolt) |
Energy recovery stabilisation method prior to
dismantling to module level. Aim to develop automated machinery using
machine vision to identify battery pack modules to accomplish the
discharging and dismantling in the future. |
Energy recovery |
(Northvolt, 2019) |
OnTo Technology |
Cleaning and electrolyte removal by SC
CO2, giving stabilised batteries. |
SC
CO2
|
(Larouche, et al., 2020; Jung, et al.,
2023) |
RecycLiCo Battery Materials (American Manganese Inc.)2
|
No battery processing as only black mass or production scrap is
accepted. |
N/A |
(Munro & Associates, 2023) |
Redux |
Energy recovery from batteries followed by thermal treatment to
remove electrolyte and render inactive. |
Energy recovery |
(Latini, et
al., 2022) |
Redwood Materials1
|
Batteries are fed directly into a
rotating furnace, and therefore there is no need for stabilisation of
the cells prior to this. |
No discharge - pyro |
(Technology Wealth,
2022) |
Retriev (ToxCo)
|
Originally used cryogenic freezing of the batteries in liquid nitrogen
to freeze the electrolyte and prevent movement of lithium ions. However,
this process is no longer used due to high operational costs of
cryogenic freezing.
Presently, the cells are crushed under an aqueous LiOH solution. This
hydrolyses the exposed lithium and cools the batteries to prevent
thermal runaway.
|
Wet comminution
|
(Harper, et al., 2019), (Makwarimba, et al., 2022), (Latini, et al.,
2022), (Grandjean, et al., 2019), (Smith & Swoffer, 2013)
|
SK tes (TES-AMM, Valibat Process, Recupyl) |
No stabilisation, as
preliminary shredding is undertaken under an inert atmosphere
(CO2 and Ar mixture). |
Inert gas comminution |
(Mossali, et al., 2020), (Sonoc, et al., 2015), (Latini, et al., 2022),
(Tedjar & Foudraz, 2007), |
SNAM |
Sorting of the batteries followed by pyrolysis to remove the
electrolyte. |
Thermal deactivation |
(Mossali, et al., 2020), (Latini,
et al., 2022) |
Stena Recycling |
Batteries undergo energy recovery stabilisation
process with energy used internally. |
Energy recovery |
(Stena
Recycling, 2023) |
Sumimoto (4R Energy Corp, Sony) |
No stabilisation as the first process
is calcination at 1000 °C to remove the electrolyte. |
No discharge -
pyro |
(Velázquez-Martinez, et al., 2019), (Mossali, et al., 2020),
(Latini, et al., 2022) |
SungEel HiTech (SungEel MCC Americas1) |
Stabilisation
in a brine solution before shredding and hydrometallurgical processes |
Brine discharge |
(SungEel HiTech, 2022) |
Taisen Recycling |
Wet shredding of the batteries in water. |
Wet
comminution |
(Avicenne Energy, 2018) |
Tele Battery Recycling (Telerecycle) |
Mechanical processes used to
shred the batteries (assumed wet comminution), but no information on any
stabilisation processes is available |
Wet comminution |
(Sojka, et al.,
2020; Li, 2011) |
Tozero2
|
No battery processing as only black
mass or production scrap is accepted. |
N/A |
(Hampel,
2023) |
Umicore (VAL’EAS Process) |
No stabilisation is required, as the initial
process involves heating of the batteries in a pre-heating zone of a
furnace to evaporate the electrolyte and prevent an explosion. According
to Elwert et al. (2018), the SOC of larger batteries is assessed, and if
possible, the batteries are discharged into the public power grid. After
discharging, the electrical connections between the modules are
interrupted to eliminate high voltage risks. |
Thermal deactivation |
(Wang, et al., 2022) (Mossali, et al., 2020; Makuza, et al.,
2021) |