Company Notes Method Reference
Accurec No stabilisation of cells or smaller batteries, as first step is the removal of electrolyte through vacuum furnace with subsequent distillation of electrolytes. Large battery packs are discharged before dismantling to cell level. Thermal deactivation (Mossali, et al., 2020), (Sommerville, et al., 2021), (Lv, et al., 2018), (Makwarimba, et al., 2022)
AEA Technology No stabilisation process, as the LIB are shredded in an inert atmosphere and then organic solvent is used to remove electrolyte. Inert gas comminution (Mossali, et al., 2020)
AkkuSer Manual sorting followed by crushing combined with an air cyclone air to remove the exhaust gases fast enough to prevent explosions/combustion within the shredder. There are differing opinions on whether the process uses an inert atmosphere (Ekberg & Petranikova, 2015) or not (Valio, 2017). Inert gas comminution (Mossali, et al., 2020), (Pudas, et al., 2011)
Anhua Taisen Recycling No information available Unknown
Ascend Elements (Battery Resourcers) Batteries are sorted based on SOH and energy recovery is undertaken. An in-process stabilisation method is used with a passivating or reducing gas such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, or argon. Energy recovery (Latini, et al., 2022), (Gratz & Wang, 2022)
Aurubis2 No information available Unknown
Bangpu Ni/Co High-tech Co. Stabilisation of spent LIBs in brine solution. Brine discharge (Natarajan & Aravindan, 2018)
Batrec Industrie Stabilisation and storage of the batteries in water, followed by wet shredding under water. The loading of cells into the water is kept sufficiently low to ensure any hydrogen produced remains below flash-point concentrations. Wet comminution (Rädecker, 2024)
Battery Solutions3 “Room temperature, oxygen-free” mechanical process to shred and separate the batteries. Inert gas comminution (Kelleher Environmenatal, Gracestone Inc. & Millette Environmental, 2019)
BDT3 Batteries are crushed under a sodium hydroxide solution without prior discharging. Wet comminution (Cardarelli & Dube, 2001)
CATL (Brunpt) No information on what technology is used in the discharging of the batteries, but discharging is mentioned in the recycling process. unknown (Sojka, et al., 2020; Jung, et al., 2023)
Cwenga Technologies2 Shredding of batteries under aqueous calcium chloride solutions with gas recovery. Wet comminution (Linnenkoper, 2022)
Dowa Eco-System Dismantling of packs and modules followed by stabilisation of cells by thermal treatment prior to shredding. Thermal deactivation (Japan Partnership for Circular Economy, 2021; Sojka, et al., 2020)
Dussenfeld Energy recovery performed, but not full stabilisation, as the batteries are shredded under a gas blanket (N2), which is dried to dew point at 233 K before use. Electrolyte is removed by vacuum drying. Inert gas comminution (Latini, et al., 2022), (Mossali, et al., 2020), (Hanisch, 2016)
EcoBat (G&P Batteries, Promesa) According to Pinegar et al., the batteries are stabilised by supercritical CO2 extraction of the electrolyte. However, Träger et al. and Sojka et al state that after dismantling, a thermal deactivation (pyrolysis) is used. The Promesa process originally shredded the batteries under an aqueous solution. Thermal deactivation (Träger, et al., 2015), (Sojka, et al., 2020), (Pinegar & Smith, 2019)
Ecopro Operate a discharging process for battery packs, modules and cells before shredding. Little information about the technology used for discharging. Unknown (ECOPRO, 2023)
Erasteel Recycling (Valdi) Batteries are mixed with other feedstocks before feeding to a smelter, and therefore no stabilisation is needed. No discharge - pyro (Latini, et al., 2022)
ERLOS Stabilisation by energy recovery, followed by battery dismantling. The cells are then opened in an inert atmosphere by robots to allow reuse of the anodes and cathodes. Energy recovery (Sojka, et al., 2020)
Euro Dieuze Industrie (SARP) Stabilisation and storage of the batteries in water, followed by wet shredding under water. Wet comminution (Latini, et al., 2022; Sojka, et al., 2020)
Farasis Energy2 Unspecified stabilisation process followed by removal of the electrolyte. Unknown (Zheng, 2019)
Fortum Oyj Batteries are stabilised electrically with energy recovery before dismantling and mechanical processing. Energy recovery (Fortum Oyj, 2024)
GHTech No information available Unknown
Glencore (Xstrata) No stabilisation due to pyrometallurgical process. No dismantling of LIBs to cell level. No discharge - pyro (Mossali, et al., 2020), (Latini, et al., 2022; Makuza, et al., 2021)
Green Eco Manufacture (GEM) Batteries are discharged by immersion in a sodium hydroxide solution before shredding. Brine discharge (Wang, et al., 2011)
Green Li-ion No battery processing, as Green Li-ion only accepts black mass or production scrap. N/A (Green Li-ion Pte Ltd, 2020)
GRS Batterien (Stiftung Gemeinsames Rücknahmesystem Batterien) No stabilisation due to pyrometallurgical process. As the reference material is from 2007, it is possible that the process has been revised slightly but given the infrastructure in place it is unlikely that GRS Batterein has moved away from pyrometallurgical processing. No discharge - pyro (GRS Batterien, 2007)
Guanghua Sci-Tech Batteries are dismantled and shredded. There is no information on stabilisation of the batteries. Unknown (Sojka, et al., 2020)
Highpower International Batteries are shredded before pyro- and then hydro-metallurgical processes, but no mention of whether the batteries are stabilisation before recycling. Unknown (Sojka, et al., 2020)
Huayou Recycling Battery packs and modules are automatically dismantled followed by crushing of the cells. There is no mention of any discharging process. Unknown (Sojka, et al., 2020)
Hydrovolt Discharging of the batteries to “0V” using ‘manual processes’ before dismantling at present, but with an aim to automate this process and recover the energy from the batteries. Energy recovery (Mercom Capital, 2023)
Inmetco The batteries are sorted, but there is no stabilisation process due to pyrometallurgy used as initial process. Takacova et al. (2023) states that thermal deactivation occurs through evaporation of the electrolyte before the cells are crushed and added to the furnace. Thermal deactivation (Mossali, et al., 2020; Makuza, et al., 2021; Takacova, et al., 2023)
JX Nippon Mining & Metals Co. Ltd Incineration of the cells removes the electrolyte and renders the cells inactive. Thermal deactivation (Makuza, et al., 2021)
Kobar Batteries are stabilised, crushed, and screened before leaching. Unknown (Sojka, et al., 2020)
Kyoei Seiko Batteries are not stabilised before co-processing, and therefore are only added as a small percentage of the feed to the electric arc furnace. No discharge - pyro (Sojka, et al., 2020)
LiCycle Submersion in a solution of Ca(OH)2 and NaCl for discharging and shredding. Brine discharge (Latini, et al., 2022)
Lithion Recycling Wet shredding in a light organic solvent with no prior stabilisation, followed by thermal drying to remove solvent and recover electrolytes. Wet comminution (Latini, et al., 2022)
LithoRec (Chemetall Lithium, Albemarle Germany) Energy recovery stabilisation method followed by to short circuiting for 24 h to minimise the relaxation voltage of the batteries. The batteries are then dismantled to cell level and shredded under a nitrogen atmosphere. Energy recovery (Makwarimba, et al., 2022; Latini, et al., 2022; Nowak & Winter, 2017)
Metal-Tech Ltd3 No information available. Website refers only to tungsten business. Unknown (Metal-Tech, 2018)
Neometals Stabilisation using a brine solution (salt used is not disclosed). Brine discharge (Latini, et al., 2022)
Nickelhütte Aue Thermal treatment of LIBs, with no mention of stabilisation of the batteries. No discharge - pyro (Sojka, et al., 2020)
Nippon Recycle Centre Corp. No information available Unknown
Northvolt AB (Revolt) Energy recovery stabilisation method prior to dismantling to module level. Aim to develop automated machinery using machine vision to identify battery pack modules to accomplish the discharging and dismantling in the future. Energy recovery (Northvolt, 2019)
OnTo Technology Cleaning and electrolyte removal by SC CO2, giving stabilised batteries. SC CO2 (Larouche, et al., 2020; Jung, et al., 2023)
RecycLiCo Battery Materials (American Manganese Inc.)2 No battery processing as only black mass or production scrap is accepted. N/A (Munro & Associates, 2023)
Redux Energy recovery from batteries followed by thermal treatment to remove electrolyte and render inactive. Energy recovery (Latini, et al., 2022)
Redwood Materials1 Batteries are fed directly into a rotating furnace, and therefore there is no need for stabilisation of the cells prior to this. No discharge - pyro (Technology Wealth, 2022)
Retriev (ToxCo) Originally used cryogenic freezing of the batteries in liquid nitrogen to freeze the electrolyte and prevent movement of lithium ions. However, this process is no longer used due to high operational costs of cryogenic freezing. Presently, the cells are crushed under an aqueous LiOH solution. This hydrolyses the exposed lithium and cools the batteries to prevent thermal runaway. Wet comminution (Harper, et al., 2019), (Makwarimba, et al., 2022), (Latini, et al., 2022), (Grandjean, et al., 2019), (Smith & Swoffer, 2013)
SK tes (TES-AMM, Valibat Process, Recupyl) No stabilisation, as preliminary shredding is undertaken under an inert atmosphere (CO2 and Ar mixture). Inert gas comminution (Mossali, et al., 2020), (Sonoc, et al., 2015), (Latini, et al., 2022), (Tedjar & Foudraz, 2007),
SNAM Sorting of the batteries followed by pyrolysis to remove the electrolyte. Thermal deactivation (Mossali, et al., 2020), (Latini, et al., 2022)
Stena Recycling Batteries undergo energy recovery stabilisation process with energy used internally. Energy recovery (Stena Recycling, 2023)
Sumimoto (4R Energy Corp, Sony) No stabilisation as the first process is calcination at 1000 °C to remove the electrolyte. No discharge - pyro (Velázquez-Martinez, et al., 2019), (Mossali, et al., 2020), (Latini, et al., 2022)
SungEel HiTech (SungEel MCC Americas1) Stabilisation in a brine solution before shredding and hydrometallurgical processes Brine discharge (SungEel HiTech, 2022)
Taisen Recycling Wet shredding of the batteries in water. Wet comminution (Avicenne Energy, 2018)
Tele Battery Recycling (Telerecycle) Mechanical processes used to shred the batteries (assumed wet comminution), but no information on any stabilisation processes is available Wet comminution (Sojka, et al., 2020; Li, 2011)
Tozero2 No battery processing as only black mass or production scrap is accepted. N/A (Hampel, 2023)
Umicore (VAL’EAS Process) No stabilisation is required, as the initial process involves heating of the batteries in a pre-heating zone of a furnace to evaporate the electrolyte and prevent an explosion. According to Elwert et al. (2018), the SOC of larger batteries is assessed, and if possible, the batteries are discharged into the public power grid. After discharging, the electrical connections between the modules are interrupted to eliminate high voltage risks. Thermal deactivation (Wang, et al., 2022) (Mossali, et al., 2020; Makuza, et al., 2021)