It is widely recognized that multi-year drought can induce changes in catchment hydrological behaviors. However, at present, our understanding about multi-year, drought-induced changes in catchment hydrological behaviors and its driving factors at the process level is still very limited. This study proposed a new approach using a data assimilation technique with a process-based hydrological model to detect multi-year drought-induced changes in catchment hydrological behaviors and to identify driving factors for the changes in an unimpaired Australian catchment (Wee Jasper) which experienced prolonged drought from 1997 to 2009. Modelling experiments demonstrated that the multi-year drought caused a significant change in the catchment rainfall-runoff relationship, indicated by significant step changes in the estimated time-variant hydrological parameters SC (indicating catchment active water storage capacity) and C (reflecting catchment evapotranspiration dynamics), whose average values increased 23.4% and 10.2%, respectively, due to drought. The change in the rainfall-runoff relationship identified by the data assimilation method is consistent with that arrived at by a statistical examination. The proposed method provides insights about the drivers of the changes in the rainfall-runoff relationship at the processes level. Declining groundwater and deep soil moisture depleted by persistent evapotranspiration of deep-rooted woody vegetation during drought are the main driving factors for the catchment behaviors change in the Wee Jasper catchment. The new method proposed in this study was found to be an effective technique for detecting both the change of hydrological behaviors induced by prolonged drought and its driving factors at the process level.

Wildfires are a cause of soil water repellency (hydrophobicity), which reduces infiltration while increasing erosion and flooding from post-fire rainfall. Post-fire soil water repellency degrades over time, often in response to repeated wetting and drying of the soil. However, in mountainous fire-prone forests such as those in the Western USA, the fire season often terminates in a cold and wet winter, during which soils not only wet and dry, but also freeze and thaw. Little is know about the effect of repeated freezing and thawing of soil on the breakdown of post-fire hydrophobicity. This study characterized the changes in hydrophobicity of Sierra Nevada mountain soils exposed to different combinations of wet-dry and freeze-thaw cycling. Following each cycle, hydrophobicity was measured using the Molarity of Ethanol test. Hydrophobicity declined similarly across all experiments that included a wetting cycle. Repeated freezing and thawing of dry soil did not degrade soil water repellency. Total soil organic matter content was not different between soils of contrasting hydrophobicity. Macroscopic changes such as fissures and cracks were observed to form as soil hydrophobicity decayed. Microscopic changes revealed by scanning electron microscope imagery suggest different levels of soil aggregation occurred in samples with distinct hydrophobicities, although the size of aggregates was not clearly correlated to the change in water repellency due to wet-dry and freeze-thaw cycling. A nine year climate and soil moisture record from Providence Critical Zone Observatory was combined with the laboratory results to estimate that hydrophobicity would persist an average of 144 days post-fire at this well-characterized, typical mid-elevation Sierra Nevada site. Most of the breakdown in soil water repellency (79%) under these climate conditions would be attributable to freeze-thaw cycling, underscoring the importance of this process in soil recovery from fire in the Sierra Nevada.

Monitoring of the fluctuations of groundwater storage is particularly important in arid and semi-arid regions where water scarcity brings about various challenges. Remote sensing data and techniques play a preponderant role in developing solutions to environmental problems. Emergence of GRACE satellites have eased the remote monitoring and evaluation of groundwater resources with an unprecedented precision over large scales. Within the scope of the current study, the latest release of GRACE Mascon’s dataset as well as GLDAS models of Noah and CLSM were integrated to extract groundwater storage anomalies (GWSA) over Turkey. The temporal interactions of the estimated GWSA with the climatic variables of precipitation and temperature (derived from the reanalysis datasets of CHELSA and FLDAS, respectively) were investigated statistically. The results suggest the there is a descending trend for TWSA and GWSA over Turkey with a total loss of 11 and 6 cm respectively. The statistical analysis results also indicate that the monthly variations of GWS over Turkey are highly correlated with precipitation and temperature at 2-month lag. The analysis of the climatology (long-term) values of monthly GWSA, precipitation and temperature also revealed high agreement between the variables.

In this study, we characterize the snowmelt hydrological response of nine nested headwater watersheds in southeast Wyoming by separating streamflow into three components using a combination of tracer and graphical approaches. First, continuous records of specific conductance (SC) from 2016 to 2018 were used to separate streamflow into direct runoff and baseflow components. Then, diurnal streamflow cycles occurring during the snowmelt season were used to graphically separate direct runoff into quickflow, representing water with the shortest residence time, and throughflow, representing water with longer residence time in the soil column and/or regolith layers before becoming streamflow. On average, annual streamflow was comprised of between 22% to 46% baseflow, 7% to 14% quickflow, and 46% to 55% throughflow across the watersheds. We then quantified hysteresis at both annual and daily timescales by plotting SC versus discharge. Annually, most watersheds showed negative, concave, anti-clockwise hysteretic direction suggesting faster flow pathways dominate streamflow on the rising limb of the annual hydrograph relative to the falling limb. At the daily timescale during snowmelt-induced diurnal streamflow cycles, hysteresis was negative, but with a clockwise direction implying that quickflow peaks generated from the concurrent daily snowmelt, with shorter residence times and lower specific conductance, arrive after throughflow peaks and preferentially contribute on the falling limb of diurnal cycles. Slope aspect and surficial geology were highly correlated with the partitioning of streamflow components. South-facing watersheds were more susceptible to early season snowmelt at slower rates, resulting in less direct runoff and more baseflow contribution. Conversely, north-facing watersheds had longer snow persistence and larger proportions of direct runoff and quickflow. Watersheds with surficial and bedrock geologies dominated by glacial deposits had a lower proportion of quickflow compared to watersheds with large percentages of metasedimentary rocks and glaciated bedrock.

The water agreements between Mexico and the United States have been crucial to restore and preserve the wetlands of the Colorado River Delta. Nowadays, the increase of water demand and climate change in the northwest of Mexico could threaten the conservation of the Cienega de Santa Clara, a coastal wetland composed of 4,709 ha of marsh area in the limits of the Sonoran Desert. This ecosystem was recognized internationally by the international Ramsar convention for playing vital ecological roles, including the habitat service for endemic, endangered and migratory species. Since the inflow reductions by the trial run of the Yuma Desalting Plant during 2010-2011, and earlier events, the hydrology of the wetland has not been completely understanding due to accessibility. Therefore this study was conducted to obtaining the hydrological elements to conserve the wetland, analyzing three scenarios: 1] normal inflow conditions of the Wellton-Mohawk canal; 2] inflow reductions, and; 3] an increase of temperature in consequence of global warming. Water and mass balances were conducted every month during one year; in-situ measurements of inflows were carried out on Wellton-Mohawk, Riíto Drain, groundwater, and precipitation; also were including evapotranspiration outputs estimated using local weather registers and Penman-Monteith formulations. The implications of the increase in temperature considered include the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change projections for the one hundred years. Finally, the results showed superficial water disconnections between the hydrological system of the wetland and the Gulf of California. This behavior was observed in the three scenarios, mainly in the summer months. A continuous disconnection reduced the wetland area and the water storage. Therefore, the hydrological functionality of the wetland depends on the water supply thru Wellton-Mohawk canal, which was determinate that at least a continuous discharge of 5.10 m3 s-1 during summer months is needed to maintain its functionality.

Particle selectivity plays an important role in clarifying sediment transport processes in vegetative filter strips (VFS). 10-m long grass strips at slopes of 5○ and 15○were subjected to a series of silt-laden inflows experiments with different particle sizes to investigate the sediment transport and its response to overland flow hydraulics. The inflow sediments came from local soil, river-bed sand, and mixed, with median particle size d50 of 39.9, 207.9, and 77.4 μm, respectively. Three independent repeated experiments were carried for each treatment. The results show that when the sediment trapping lasted for a certain length of time, the re-entrainment of some small-sized particles was greater than the deposition; that is, negative deposition occurred, which was not erosion of the original soil. Negative deposition of particles is mainly determined by the particle diameter. The coarser the inflow sediment particles and/or the steeper the slope, the coarser the particles can be negatively deposited. Deposited sediment causes the VFS bed surface to become smooth and hydraulic resistance decrease exponentially. Stream power P is more suitable than shear stress τ of overland flow to be used to describe the process of sediment particle transport in VFS. The relationship between P and d50 of outflow sediment is very consistent with the form of power function with a constant term. These results are helpful to understand the physical process of sediment transport on vegetation hillslopes.

With the increasing demand for water resources, the utilization of marginal water resources of poor-quality has become a focus of attention. The brackish water developed in the Loess Plateau is not only salty but also famous for its “bitterness”. In the present work, multi-isotope analysis (Sr, B) was combined with geochemical analysis to gain insight into the hydrogeochemical evolution and formation mechanisms of brackish water. These results demonstrate that groundwater in the headwater is influenced by carbonate weathering. After the confluence of several tributaries in the headwater, the total dissolved solids (TDS) of water is significantly increased. The dissolution of evaporates is shown to be the main source of salinity in brackish water, which also greatly affects the Sr isotopic composition of water. This includes the dissolution of Mg-rich minerals, which is the main cause of the bitterness. Furthermore, the release of calcium from the dissolution of gypsum may induce calcite precipitation and incongruent dissolution of dolomite, which also contributes to the enrichment of magnesium. The highly fractionated boron isotopic values observed in the upstream groundwater were explained by boron interacting with clays, illustrating the important role played by the cationic exchange reaction. The inflow of brackish groundwater is the source of the observed quality of the river water. River water with relatively enriched 11B contents reflects the occurrence of evaporation along the flow path of the river. This process further aggravates the salinization of river water, with water quality evolving to saline conditions in the lower reach. When the river reaches the valley plain, the 87Sr/86Sr ratios decreases significantly, which is primarily related to erosion of the riverbanks during runoff. These results indicate that water resource sustainability could be enhanced by directing focus to mitigating salinization in the source area of the catchment.

Earth system models synthesize the science of interactions among multiple biophysical and, increasingly, human processes across a wide range of scales. Ecohydrologic models are a subset of earth system models that focus particularly on the complex interactions between ecosystem processes and the storage and flux of water. Ecohydrologic models often focus at scales where direct observations occur: plots, hillslopes, streams, and watersheds, as well as where land and resource management decisions are implemented. These models complement field-based and data-driven science by combining theory and data to create virtual laboratories. Ecohydrologic models are tools that managers can use to ask “what if” questions and domain scientists can use to explore the implications of new theory or measurements. Recent decades have seen substantial advances in ecohydrologic models, building on both new domain science and advances in software engineering and data availability. The increasing sophistication of ecohydrologic models however, presents a barrier to their widespread use and credibility. Because they are “black boxes,” what the models actually do is rarely clear—even to those who design and use them—and this opacity leads to mistrust and complicates the interpretation of model results. For models to effectively advance our understanding of how plants and water interact, we must improve how we visualize not only model outputs, but also the underlying theories that are encoded within the models. In this paper, we outline a framework for increasing the usefulness of ecohydrologic models through better visualization. We outline four complementary approaches, ranging from simple best practices that leverage existing technologies, to ideas that would engage novel software engineering and cutting edge human-computer interface design. Our goal is to open the ecohydrologic model black box in ways that will engage multiple audiences, from novices to model developers, and support learning, new discovery, and environmental problem solving.

Proglacial aquifers are an important water store in glacierised mountain catchments that supplement meltwater-fed river flows and support freshwater ecosystems. Climate change and glacier retreat will perturb water storage in these aquifers, yet the climate-glacier-groundwater response cascade has rarely been studied and remains poorly understood. This study implements an integrated modelling approach that combines distributed glacio-hydrological and groundwater models with climate change projections to evaluate the evolution of groundwater storage dynamics and surface-groundwater exchanges in a temperate, glacierised catchment in Iceland. Focussed infiltration along the meltwater-fed Virkisà River channel is found to be an important source of groundwater recharge and is projected to provide 14-20% of total groundwater recharge by the 2080s. The simulations highlight a mechanism by which glacier retreat could inhibit river recharge in the future due to the loss of diurnal melt cycling in the runoff hydrograph. However, the evolution of proglacial groundwater level dynamics show considerable resilience to changes in river recharge and, instead, are driven by changes in the magnitude and seasonal timing of diffuse recharge from year-round rainfall. The majority of scenarios simulate an overall reduction in groundwater levels with a maximum 30-day average groundwater level reduction of 1 m. The simulations replicate observational studies of baseflow to the river, where up to 15% of the 30-day average river flow comes from groundwater outside of the melt season. This is forecast to reduce to 3-8% by the 2080s due to increased contributions from rainfall and meltwater runoff. During the melt season, groundwater will continue to contribute 1-3% of river flow despite significant reductions in meltwater runoff inputs. Therefore it is concluded that, in the proglacial region, groundwater will continue to provide only limited buffering of river flows as the glacier retreats.

Interactions between the land surface and the atmosphere play essential roles in hydrological variations at local scales. Variations of regional climate patterns over preceding years have key effects on the seasonal water and moisture conditions in the following year. The linkage between regional climate and local hydrology is challenging due to scale differences, both spatially and temporally. In this study, multiple hydroclimatic phases were identified to relate climatic teleconnection patterns to hydrological processes in a small headwater basin within Reynolds Creek Experiment Watershed, Idaho, USA. A singular spectrum analysis and a combination of hydrological observations and outputs from a physically based hydrological model were used for this purpose. Results showed that a positive phase of North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) is more influential than a positive phase of the Pacific North American (PNA) pattern on the observed annual runoff and the modeled rain on snow runoff in the study area. Specifically, we found a 43% and 26% shift below normal in annual runoff and rain on snow runoff from NAO and a 29% and 9% below normal from PNA. More frequent rain on snow events were observed under a positive phase of Antarctic Oscillation, leading to a 45% increase in the rain on snow runoff, which accounts for one-third of the mean annual runoff. A high runoff-to-precipitation ratio was observed in the study area under negative phases of Arctic Oscillation and Sea Surface Temperature in the Niño 3.4 region of the Equatorial Pacific Ocean. A switch in the phase of the teleconnection patterns of NAO and PNA in 2012 was concomitant with a transition from wet to dry conditions in the basin, suggesting the importance of the regional teleconnections in affecting snow and runoff regimes at local scales. The identified hydroclimatic phases can be implemented in operational models to improve uncertainties in hydrological forecasts, climate projections, and water resources planning.

Bushfires are common in Australia and can cause vegetation loss and affect hydrological processes such as interception, evapotranspiration, soil water storage and streamflow. This study investigates bushfire impacts on catchment mean annual streamflow for 14 Australian catchments that have been severely impacted by the 2009 Victoria bushfire, the second worst bushfire disaster in Australia. A statistical approach based on sensitivity coefficients was used for quantifying the climate variability impacts on streamflow and the time-trend analysis method was used to estimate the annual streamflow changes due to bushfire respectively. Our results show that bushfire has caused a noticeable increase in mean annual streamflow in majority of burnt catchments for an immediate post bushfire period (2009-2015), when the bushfire impact on streamflow is evidently larger than the climate change impact. Furthermore, the bushfire impact on mean annual streamflow linearly increases with the burnt percentage area. These results provide strong evidence for evaluating large-scale bushfire impact on streamflow at small to medium sized catchments, and guidance for process-based hydrological models for simulating bushfire impacts on hydrological processes for the immediate period after bushfire.

Post-fire managers throughout the world use predictive models to estimate potential erosion risks to aid in evaluating downstream impacts of increased runoff and erosion, and to target critical areas within a fire for applying mitigation practices. Erosion prediction can be complicated by forest road networks. Using GIS technology and a soil erosion model, this study evaluated the effect of roads on erosion and sediment yield following a wildfire, and whether the predictive models were providing reasonable results. The GeoWEPP model was used to simulate onsite erosion and offsite sediment delivery before and after fire disturbance. A 2-m resolution DEM was used as the terrain layer. Erosion rates in excess of 4 Mg ha-1 yr-1 were predicted mainly from the moderate and high severity burn areas. Roads influenced both flow path and sub-catchment delineations, affecting the spatial distribution of sediment detachment and transport. Through that influence, roads tended to reduce estimated erosion on slopes below the roads, but road fillslopes and steep channels were areas of significant increases in erosion risks. Measured deposition amounts along roads and in sediment basins were similar to predicted amounts. The results confirm that road prisms, culverts and road ditches greatly influence sedimentation processes after wildfire, and they present opportunities to detain eroded sediments before they reach downstream water bodies.

Runoff and erosion can increase after wildfires, but little is known about the effects of wildfire plus post-fire salvage logging, or mitigating these effects. Past research has identified soil compaction and reduced surface cover as controls on runoff and erosion, but the relative contributions of these changes are not clear. Two years after high severity burning by the 2015 Valley Fire in California, replicated rainfall simulations were carried out in four soil conditions across compaction and cover factors: uncompacted/compacted by logging machinery and bare soil/60% wood slash-cover. Runoff after 71 mm of rainfall totaled 27 mm in the uncompacted bare plots and 39 mm in the compacted bare plots. Runoff in the slash-covered plots decreased by 50% and 33% as compared to the uncompacted and compacted bare plots, respectively, although none of the differences in runoff were significant. Rainsplash averaged 30 g for the bare plots, regardless of compaction, and decreased significantly by 70% on slash-covered plots. Sediment yield totaled 460 and 818 g m-2 for the uncompacted and compacted bare plots, respectively, and slash significantly reduced these amounts by 72% and 69%, respectively. Our results showed that post-fire soil erosion in high severity burned unlogged areas was still very high two years after the wildfire. The combination of wildfire and salvage logging doubled soil erosion by increases in both runoff amount and sediment concentration. Antecedent soil moisture (dry or wet) was the dominant factor for runoff, while surface cover was the dominant factor for erosion and sediment delivery. Covering the soil with slash reduced both runoff and erosion, suggesting this treatment would reduce long‐term sediment delivery from burned areas and skid trails. Saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks) and interrill erodibility (Ki) calculated from these simulations confirmed previous research and will support modeling efforts related to wildfire and post-fire salvage logging.

To study the hyporheic exchange driven by a single peak flood-induced water level fluctuation (i.e. flood wave), a method combining numerical simulation with theoretical derivation was proposed based on the Inbuk Stream, Korea, where flooding occurs frequently. The hyporheic exchanges induced by different flood waves were investigated by varying amplitude (A), duration (T), wave type parameter (r), and rising duration (tp), which were adopted from the real-time stream stage fluctuations. Additionally, the idea of constant upstream flood volume (CUFV) condition for flood waves was put forward, and the effects of “Botan” (T/A) and peak number (N) on hyporheic exchange were studied. The results showed that the hyporheic exchange flux (q) was controlled by the water level h (sine-type) and its change rate v (cosine-type), and was proportional to the polynomial of them q“∝” (ω∙h+v), where ω is the angular frequency of the flood wave. Based on this mechanism, the influence principles on hyporheic exchanges of the typical flood wave parameters (A, T, r and tp) as well as T/A and N under CUFV condition were clarified. The main characteristic variables of hyporheic exchange, which were maximum aquifer storage and residence time, were positively correlated. They also had positive relations to the integral of the flood wave over time, which increased when the wave became higher, wider, rounder and less skewed. However, when CUFV condition was imposed, the residence time was positively correlated with T/A, whereas the maximum aquifer storage was negatively correlated with T/A. With the increase in N, water exchanged more frequently and some water returned to the stream early, leading to the slight decrease in maximum aquifer storage and residence time. These findings enriched the theory of hyporheic exchange driven by surface water fluctuation and be of great significance to enhance pollutant degradation in the hyporheic zone downstream of reservoirs.

Macrophyte community diversity and composition respond to ecosystem conservation and local environmental factors. In this study, we developed a multidimensional diversity framework for macrophyte communities, including the taxonomic and functional alpha and beta diversity. We used the framework to explore the relationships among water level regimes and these diversity parameters in a case study of China’s Baiyangdian Lake. Analysis of indicators of hydrologic alteration divided the water level from 1959 to 2019 into four regimes (dry, <6.42 m; low, 6.42 to 7.23 m; medium, 7.23 to 8.19 m; high, >8.19 m). Alpha and beta diversity were significantly higher in the medium regime than in the low and high regimes. Redundancy analysis indicated that the maximum water depth significantly affected taxonomic alpha diversity, and total nitrogen (TN) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) concentration significantly affected functional alpha diversity, respectively. Mantel tests showed that TN, Secchi depth, and water depth in the high water level regime significantly increased the total beta diversity and turnover components. TN was the main factor that increased total taxonomic beta diversity. Interspecific competition decreased with the decreasing range (variation) of TN values and differed opposite with the variation of COD values in response to increasing water level, and reached its maximum in the medium regime. Ecosystem stability was promoted by maintaining high species richness and evenness and high differences among communities, and by reducing competition. Based on our results, the water level should be maintained between the medium and high water level regimes to promote restoration of the macrophyte community and improve ecosystem stability.

The dissolved organic carbon(DOC) content of rivers is the most active part of the carbon cycle migration in the basin under consideration, and it is the basis for a comprehensive understanding of the regional carbon cycle. In this study, we periodically took samples from four monitoring stations in the Xiying River Basin of the Qilian Mountains in the northern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. We calculated the fluxes of organic carbon in the rivers within the study area and will discuss the influencing factors of Dissolved Organic Carbon concentration in these rivers in this paper. Our results showed that: (1) The DOC concentration and output flux in the inland river runoff area are basically the same as those in the Heihe River Basin, but far lower than those in the low-latitude monsoon climate zone and most of the basins in the Eurasian Arctic region. This is mainly due to the small river runoff and low DOC concentration in the area. (2) The Dissolved Organic Carbon concentration and transport flux of the rivers show significant seasonal changes, with the Dissolved Organic Carbon content in summer and autumn being higher than in winter and spring. (3) The larger runoff causes higher concentrations of dissolved organic carbon in rivers. Runoff is the primary means of carbon migration in the Inland River Basin. There are significant carbon migrations from the upstream to the middle and downstream sections of the Inland River Basin.

Soil water stable isotopes are widely used across disciplines (e.g. hydrology, ecology, soil science, and biogeochemistry). However, the full potential of stables isotopes as a tool for characterizing the origin, flow path, transport processes and residence times of water in different eco-, hydro-, and geological compartments has not yet been exploited. This is mainly due to the large variety of different methods for pore water extraction. While recent work has shown that matric potential affects the equilibrium fractionation, little work has examined how different water retention characteristics might affect the sampled water isotopic composition. Here, we present a simple laboratory experiment with two well-studied standard soils differing in their physico-chemical properties (e.g., clayey loam and silty sand). Samples were sieved, oven-dried and spiked with water of known isotopic composition to full saturation. For investigating the effect of water retention characteristics on the extracted water isotopic composition, we used pressure extractors to sample isotopically labelled soil water along the pF curve. After pressure extraction, we further extracted the soil samples via cryogenic vacuum extraction. The null hypothesis guiding our work was that water held at different tensions shows the same isotopic composition. Our results showed that the sampled soil water differed isotopically from the introduced isotopic label over time and sequentially along the pF curve. Our and previous studies suggest caution in interpreting isotope results of extracted soil water and a need to better characterize processes that govern isotope fractionation with respect to soil water retention characteristics. In the future, knowledge about soil water retention characteristics could be applied to predict soil water fractionation effects under natural and non-stationary conditions.

The weakened connectivity of wetland systems is the key factor leading to the destruction, degradation, and disappearance of wetlands. The study of the change of wetland system connectivity enables understanding the hydrological process in wetland system and providing significant support for the study of ecological water demand. However, research on the connectivity of wetland systems has primarily focused on the intuitive connectivity in terms of hydrology and geomorphology in recent years, while the impact of wetland systems on habitat has been ignored. In this study, an innovative method was applied to evaluate and regulate the stereoscopic spatial connectivity (SSC) of the wetland system in the Heilongjiang River Basin in China (HRBC). In this method, the water requirements of typical organisms in the region were considered, and the hydrological trend in the wetland system as well as the health conditions of the SSC were analyzed using remote sensing image. A regulation mode for improving the stereoscopic spatial connectivity index (SSCI) was proposed. The results revealed that over the past 35 years, the wetland system in the study area shrank significantly, with the SSCI decreasing from 41.30% in 1980 to 35.08% in 2015. By comparing the correlation among temperature, precipitation, agricultural land, construction land, and the wetland system during the same period, it was proven that human activity is the major driving force behind the observed wetland system shrinkage. Subsequently, the key protected areas required to maintain the SSC of the wetland system were clarified, and the key recovery areas were determined according to the three scenarios of ‘high–medium–low’ feasibility, which greatly improved the SSCI and generalization route (GR) after regulation. In general, the proposed SSC evaluation methods can fully reflect the ecohydrological process of wetland systems. The methods also scientifically quantify the significant effects of the regulation mode, which has certain relevance for the evaluation and regulation of wetland systems in other regions.