Amazonian forests are vulnerable to a wide range of human threats, such as selective logging and forest fires. The capacity of Amazonian forests to recover from human-disturbances depends, among other factors, on the persistence of frugivory interactions leading to essential ecological functions, like seed dispersal. Although important, little is known about frugivory interactions in the Amazonian forests. Most studies focus on a single or a limited set of similar species; neither studies include both arboreal and terrestrial frugivores. Moreover, most studies have not studied the impact of human-disturbances. We investigated the impacts of selective logging and forest fires on frugivory interactions in Amazonian forests. We sampled interactions at the community level, surveying arboreal and terrestrial frugivores across 17 forest transects with variable disturbance histories. We found that undisturbed forests held a significantly higher richness of species and interactions distinct from those of interactions human-disturbed forests. Logged forests burned 17 years previously held substantially lower richness of species and interactions, and the interaction composition was almost entirely dissimilar to those of undisturbed forests. Logged (unburned) and logged forests burned three years previously also differed substantially in their frugivory interaction composition, but overall richness and frugivory interactions richness was similar. However, neither selective logging nor forest fires changed the structural properties of frugivory networks, which are highly modular, moderately specialised and poorly connected and nested. β-diversity of plant and frugivore species as well as their interactions was high among all transects, mainly due to the high spatial turnover. Our study provides the first empirical evidence of the negative effects of fires combined with selective logging on frugivory interactions in tropical forests, highlighting the long time-scales required to evaluate impacts and reestablish ecological processes.

1. Studies on the effects of human-driven forest disturbance usually focus on either biodiversity or carbon dynamics but much less is known about ecosystem processes that integrate trophic levels. Herbivory is one fundamental ecological process for ecosystem functioning that remains underexplored and is poorly quantified in human-modified tropical rainforests. 2. Here, we present the results of the largest study to date on the impacts of human disturbances on herbivory. We quantified the incidence and severity of herbivory caused by chewers, miners and gall-formers in 199,869 canopy leaf blades from 1,102 trees distributed across 20 forest plots located along a gradient of human disturbance in the Amazon. 3. We found that chewers dominated herbivory incidence, yet were not a good predictor of the other forms of herbivory either at the stem or plot level. Herbivory severity was correlated with disturbance intensity, being greater at more disturbed sites. 4. Synthesis. Although our large-scale study of canopy herbivory in Amazonian forests suggests that human disturbance increases the severity of leaf herbivory, effects were weak. Additionally, we found no effect of human disturbance in incidence of leaf herbivory. These results combined indicate that herbivory is a relatively resilient process to human impacts.