Four previously identified patterns of meso-scale cloud organization in the trades -- called Sugar, Gravel, Flowers and Fish -- are studied using long-term records of ground-based measurements, satellite observations and reanalyses. A neural network trained to detect these patterns is applied to satellite imagery to identify periods during which a particular pattern is over the Barbados Cloud Observatory. Surface based remote sensing at the observatory is composited and shows that the patterns can be distinguished by differences in cloud macro-physical structures. Variations in total cloudiness among the patterns are dominated by variations in cloud-top cloudiness. Cloud amount near cloud base varies little. Each pattern is associated with a distinct atmospheric environment whose characteristics are traced back to origins that are not solely within the trades. Sugar air-masses are characterized by weak winds and of tropical origin. Fish are driven by convergence lines originating from synoptical disturbances. Gravel and Flowers are most native to the trades, but distinguish themselves with slightly stronger winds and stronger subsidence in the first case and greater stability in the latter. These results suggest that due to the tight bound of the patterns to wind and air-mass origin, the patterns with the higher cloud fraction, Flowers and Fish, will be disfavoured in a warming climate with more equable sea-surface temperatures and fewer mid-latitudinal disturbances.

• This work documents ICON-ESM 1.0, the first version of a coupled model based 19 on the ICON framework 20 • Performance of ICON-ESM is assessed by means of CMIP6 DECK experiments 21 at standard CMIP-type resolution 22 • ICON-ESM reproduces the observed temperature evolution. Biases in clouds, winds, 23 sea-ice, and ocean properties are larger than in MPI-ESM. Abstract 25 This work documents the ICON-Earth System Model (ICON-ESM V1.0), the first cou-26 pled model based on the ICON (ICOsahedral Non-hydrostatic) framework with its un-27 structured, icosahedral grid concept. The ICON-A atmosphere uses a nonhydrostatic dy-28 namical core and the ocean model ICON-O builds on the same ICON infrastructure, but 29 applies the Boussinesq and hydrostatic approximation and includes a sea-ice model. The 30 ICON-Land module provides a new framework for the modelling of land processes and 31 the terrestrial carbon cycle. The oceanic carbon cycle and biogeochemistry are repre-32 sented by the Hamburg Ocean Carbon Cycle module. We describe the tuning and spin-33 up of a base-line version at a resolution typical for models participating in the Coupled 34 Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP). The performance of ICON-ESM is assessed by 35 means of a set of standard CMIP6 simulations. Achievements are well-balanced top-of-36 atmosphere radiation, stable key climate quantities in the control simulation, and a good 37 representation of the historical surface temperature evolution. The model has overall bi-38 ases, which are comparable to those of other CMIP models, but ICON-ESM performs 39 less well than its predecessor, the Max Planck Institute Earth System Model. Problem-40 atic biases are diagnosed in ICON-ESM in the vertical cloud distribution and the mean 41 zonal wind field. In the ocean, sub-surface temperature and salinity biases are of con-42 cern as is a too strong seasonal cycle of the sea-ice cover in both hemispheres. ICON-43 ESM V1.0 serves as a basis for further developments that will take advantage of ICON-44 specific properties such as spatially varying resolution, and configurations at very high 45 resolution. 46 Plain Language Summary 47 ICON-ESM is a completely new coupled climate and earth system model that ap-48 plies novel design principles and numerical techniques. The atmosphere model applies 49 a non-hydrostatic dynamical core, both atmosphere and ocean models apply unstruc-50 tured meshes, and the model is adapted for high-performance computing systems. This 51 article describes how the component models for atmosphere, land, and ocean are cou-52 pled together and how we achieve a stable climate by setting certain tuning parameters 53 and performing sensitivity experiments. We evaluate the performance of our new model 54 by running a set of experiments under pre-industrial and historical climate conditions 55 as well as a set of idealized greenhouse-gas-increase experiments. These experiments were 56 designed by the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP) and allow us to com-57 pare the results to those from other CMIP models and the predecessor of our model, the 58 Max Planck Institute for Meteorology Earth System Model. While we diagnose overall 59 satisfactory performance, we find that ICON-ESM features somewhat larger biases in 60 several quantities compared to its predecessor at comparable grid resolution. We empha-61 size that the present configuration serves as a basis from where future development steps 62 will open up new perspectives in earth system modelling. 63

The properties of Earth’s albedo and its symmetries are analyzed using twenty years of space-based Energy Balanced And Filled product of Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System measurements. Despite surface asymmetries, top of the atmosphere temporally & hemispherically averaged albedo appears symmetric over Northern/Southern hemispheres. This is confirmed with the use of surrogate time-series, which fails to refute the hypothesis that the hemispheric albedo difference is distinguishable from zero. An analysis of reflected irradiance time-series fails to find any indicators of some dynamics enforcing this albedo symmetry. This analysis shows that variability in the reflected solar irradiance is almost entirely (99%) due to the seasonal (yearly and half yearly cycle) variations, mostly due to seasonal variations in insolation. Hemispheric residuals of the de-seasonalized reflected solar irradiance are not only small, but indistinguishable from noise, and thus not correlated across hemispheres. The residuals contain a global trend that is large, as compared to expected albedo feedbacks, and is also hemispherically symmetric. Neither the magnitude of these trends nor its symmetry – which could be indicative of a symmetry preserving cloud dynamics – is well understood. To pinpoint precisely which parts of the Earth system establish the hemispheric symmetry, we create an energetically consistent cloud-albedo field from the data. We show that the surface albedo asymmetry is compensated by asymmetries between clouds over extra-tropical oceans, with southern hemispheric storm-tracks being 11% cloudier than their northern hemisphere counterparts.

Understanding of the tropical atmosphere is elaborated around two elementary ideas, one being that density is homogenized on isobars, which is referred to as the weak temperature gradient (WTG), the other being that the vertical structure follows a moist-adiabatic lapse rate. This study uses simulations from global storm-resolving models to investigate the accuracy of these ideas. Our results show that horizontally the density temperature appears to be homogeneous, but only in the mid- and lower troposphere (between 400 hPa and 800 hPa). To achieve a homogeneous density temperature, the horizontal absolute temperature structure adjusts to balance the horizontal moisture difference. Thus, water vapor plays an important role in the horizontal temperature distribution. Density temperature patterns in the mid- and lower troposphere vary by about 0.3 K on the scale of individual ocean basins, but differ by 1K among basins. We use equivalent potential temperature to explore the vertical structure of the tropical atmosphere and we compare the results assuming pseudo-adiabat and the reversible-adiabat (isentropic) with the effect of condensate loading. Our results suggest that the tropical atmosphere in saturated convective regions tends to adopt a thermal structure that is isentropic below the zero-degree isotherm and pseudo-adiabatic above. However, the tropical mean temperature is substantially colder, and is set by the bulk of convection which is affected by entrainment in the lower troposphere.

We quantify the temperature-dependence of the clear-sky climate sensitivity in a one-dimensional radiative-convective equilibrium model. The atmosphere is adjusted to fixed surface temperatures between 280 and 320 K while preserving other boundary conditions in particular the relative humidity and the CO2 concentration. We show that an out-of-bounds usage of the radiation scheme RRTMG can lead to an erroneous decrease of the feedback parameter and an associated “bump” in climate sensitivity as found in other modelling studies. Using a line-by-line radiative transfer model, we find an almost constant longwave radiative feedback at surface temperatures above 300 K. However, the line-by-line simulations also show a slight decrease in climate sensitivity when surface temperatures exceed 310 K. This decrease is caused by water-vapor masking the radiative forcing at the flanks of the CO2 absorption band, which reduces the total radiative forcing by about 18%.

The science guiding the \EURECA campaign and its measurements are presented. \EURECA comprised roughly five weeks of measurements in the downstream winter trades of the North Atlantic — eastward and south-eastward of Barbados. Through its ability to characterize processes operating across a wide range of scales, \EURECA marked a turning point in our ability to observationally study factors influencing clouds in the trades, how they will respond to warming, and their link to other components of the earth system, such as upper-ocean processes or, or the life-cycle of particulate matter. This characterization was made possible by thousands (2500) of sondes distributed to measure circulations on meso (200 km) and larger (500 km) scales, roughly four hundred hours of flight time by four heavily instrumented research aircraft, four global-ocean class research vessels, an advanced ground-based cloud observatory, a flotilla of autonomous or tethered measurement devices operating in the upper ocean (nearly 10000 profiles), lower atmosphere (continuous profiling), and along the air-sea interface, a network of water stable isotopologue measurements, complemented by special programmes of satellite remote sensing and modeling with a new generation of weather/climate models. In addition to providing an outline of the novel measurements and their composition into a unified and coordinated campaign, the six distinct scientific facets that \EURECA explored — from Brazil Ring Current Eddies to turbulence induced clustering of cloud droplets and its influence on warm-rain formation — are presented along with an overview \EURECA’s outreach activities, environmental impact, and guidelines for scientific practice.

The tropical temperature in the free troposphere deviates from a theoretical moist-adiabat. The overall deviations are attributed to entrainment of dry surrounding air. The deviations gradually approach zero in the upper troposphere, which we explain with a buoyancy-sorting mechanism: the height to which individual convective parcels rise depends on parcel buoyancy, which is closely tied to the impact of entrainment during ascent. In higher altitudes, the temperature is increasingly controlled by the convective parcels that are warmer and more buoyant, because of weaker entrainment effects. We represent such temperature deviations from moist-adiabats in a clear-sky one-dimensional radiative-convective equilibrium model. Compared with a moist-adiabatic adjustment, having the entrainment-induced temperature deviations leads to higher climate sensitivity. As the impact of entrainment depends on the saturation deficit which increases with warming, our model predicts even more amplified surface warming from entrainment in a warmer climate.

We quantify the temperature-dependence of clear-sky radiative feedbacks in a tropical radiative-convective equilibrium model. The longwave radiative fluxes are computed using a line-by-line radiative transfer model to ensure accuracy in very warm and moist climates. The one-dimensional model is tuned to surface temperatures between 285 and 313 K by modifying a surface enthalpy sink, which does not directly interfere with radiative fluxes in the atmosphere. The total climate feedback increases from -1.7 to -0.8 Wm^-2K^-1 for surface temperatures up to 305 K due to a strengthening of the water-vapor feedback. The temperature-dependence maximizes at surface temperatures around 297 K, which is close to the present-day tropical mean temperature. At surface temperatures above 305 K, the atmosphere becomes fully opaque and the radiative feedback is almost constant. This near-constancy is in agreement with a theoretical model of the water-vapor feedback presented by Ingram (2010), but in disagreement with other modeling studies.

This work documents the ICON-Earth System Model (ICON-ESM V1.0), the first coupled model based on the ICON (ICOsahedral Non-hydrostatic) framework with its unstructured, isosahedral grid concept. The ICON-A atmosphere uses a nonhydrostatic dynamical core and the ocean model ICON-O builds on the same ICON infrastructure, but applies the Boussinesq and hydrostatic approximation. The oceanic carbon cycle and biogeochemistry is represented by the HAMOCC6 module and the terrestrial biogeophysical and biogeochemical process are integrated in the new JSBACH4 module. We describe the tuning and spin-up of a base-line version at a resolution typical for models participating in the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP). The performance of ICON-ESM is assessed by means of a set of standard CMIP6 simulations. Achievements are well-balanced top-of-atmosphere radiation, stable key climate quantities in the control simulation, and a good representation of the historical surface temperature evolution. The model has overall biases, which are comparable to those of other CMIP models, but ICON-ESM performs less well than its predecessor, the MPI-ESM. Problematic biases are diagnosed in ICON-ESM in the vertical cloud distribution and the mean zonal wind field. In the ocean, sub-surface temperature and salinity biases are of concern as is a too strong seasonal cycle of the sea-ice cover in both hemispheres. ICON-ESM V1.0 serves as a basis for further developments that will take advantage of ICON-specific properties such as spatially varying resolution, and coupled configurations at very high resolution.

Aerosols interact with radiation and clouds. Substantial progress made over the past 40 years in observing, understanding, and modeling these processes helped quantify the imbalance in the Earth’s radiation budget caused by anthropogenic aerosols, called aerosol radiative forcing, but uncertainties remain large. This poster presents the outcome of an international workshop and subsequent review paper, which quantify the likely range of aerosol radiative forcing over the industrial era based on multiple lines of evidence, including modelling approaches, theoretical considerations, and observations. Improved understanding of aerosol absorption and the causes of trends in surface radiative fluxes narrow the range of the forcing from aerosol-radiation interactions compared to the latest assessment by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). A robust theoretical foundation and convincing evidence constrain the forcing caused by aerosol-driven increases in liquid cloud droplet number concentration. However, the influence of anthropogenic aerosols on cloud liquid water content and cloud fraction and on mixed-phase and ice clouds remains poorly constrained. Observed changes in surface temperature and radiative fluxes provide additional constraints. These multiple lines of evidence lead to total aerosol radiative forcing ranges that are of similar width to the last IPCC assessment but more clearly based on physical arguments.