Temperature is a key physical variable in streams that controls rates of metabolic processes and oxygen availability, and therefore the suitability of aquatic ecosystems. During the summer low flow period, stream temperature can be moderated by contributions from cool water sources, such as groundwater discharge and higher elevation headwaters. However, the relative contribution of these cool water sources can be spatially and temporally varying, particularly in snowmelt-dominated, high-relief watersheds. In this study, in situ and remote sensing methods are used to measure the stream temperature along a low elevation section of the North Alouette River (British Columbia, Canada) that passes through a forested area and into an open agricultural area. The methods include temperature loggers placed at the stream surface and streambed interface, and thermal infrared images acquired using a drone and Landsat 8 and 9 satellites. The drone and in situ measurements of stream temperature show good agreement, while the satellite images show the same temperature distribution (cooler in the forested area and warmer downstream in the open agricultural area) but overall shifted temperatures. Areas of mixing of cool and warm waters are identified within the stream channel using the drone imagery. Waters samples analyzed for stable isotopes are used to identify the different source waters and estimate their relative contribution to stream temperature moderation. This fingerprinting is made possible by a precipitation isotope composition-elevation gradient in the catchment. The isotope data support the observations of mixing identified with the temperature data. Understanding of where and when cool water sources contribute to streamflow will be used to inform groundwater allocation decision-making, to ensure that groundwater pumping is minimized in areas where groundwater discharge is critical for moderating stream temperatures.

Accurate observation of hillslope groundwater storage and instantaneous recharge remains difficult due to limited monitoring and the complexity of mountainous landscapes. We introduce a novel storage-discharge method to estimate hillslope recharge and the recharge ratio---the fraction of precipitation that recharges groundwater. The method, which relies on streamflow data, is corroborated by independent measurements of water storage dynamics inside the Rivendell experimental hillslope at the Eel River Critical Zone Observatory, California USA. We find that along-hillslope patterns in bedrock weathering and plant-driven storage dynamics govern the seasonal evolution of recharge ratios. Thinner weathering profiles and smaller root-zone storage deficits near-channel are replenished before larger ridge-top deficits. Consequently, precipitation progressively activates groundwater from channel to divide, with an attendant increase in recharge ratios throughout the wet season. Our novel approach and process observations offer valuable insights into controls on groundwater recharge, enhancing our understanding of a critical flux in the hydrologic cycle.

Most studies on the impacts of extreme hydrometeorological events on hydrological processes have focused primarily on surface water systems rather than groundwater systems. This study explores and seeks to untangle the complex nature of groundwater dynamics and resilience across British Columbia (BC) in response to the 2021 heatwave-intensified drought and atmospheric rivers (ARs). Historically, there have been many episodic drought events along with substantially wet periods. However, 2021 marked an unprecedented year for the immediate co-occurrence of intense and extreme drought and deluge. This weather whiplash resulted in the lowest and highest groundwater levels on record for many wells across BC. The record meteorological drought, intensified by a 13-day heatwave in late June, affected the entire province and lasted for over 50 days in the south coast region. This was followed in November by the most intense ARs to make landfall on record in southwestern BC. Groundwater hydrograph anomalies for 2021 were computed relative to their short-term historical mean for 194 provincial observation wells across the province. The 2021 anomalies showed a limited but distinct range of responses to both the drought and ARs, and cluster into three response groups, largely associated with their respective hydroclimatic regime. Many coastal wells showed a strong response to drought; however, nearly all wells in the southern interior responded substantially, with groundwater levels significantly below their historical range by late summer. Presently, groundwater levels seem to have recovered across the province, especially on the coast. This resiliency is attributed in part to the ARs that made landfall since last year along with a particularly wet, La Niña winter. The majority of coastal wells showed a much stronger signal to the ARs compared to the interior or eastern BC wells, likely due to the more rapid and intense rainfall experienced in southwestern BC. Groundwater systems across BC were variably impacted by these hydrometeorological extremes, showcasing the need for focused and area-specific approaches to water allocation decisions in assuring sustainable withdrawal practices.

In forested, seasonally dry watersheds, winter rains commonly replenish water storage deficits in the vadose zone before recharging underlying hillslope groundwater systems that sustain streamflow. However, the relative inaccessibility of the subsurface has hindered efforts to include the role of storage deficits, primarily generated by plant-water uptake, in moderating groundwater recharge. Here, we compare groundwater recharge inferred from the storage-discharge relationship with independent, distributed estimates of vadose zone storage deficits across 12 undisturbed California watersheds, thereby tracking the evolution of the deficit-recharge relationship without intensive field instrumentation. We find accrued deficits during the dry season (driven by evapotranspiration) alone insufficiently explain differences in the wet season partitioning of rainfall due to the inter-storm behavior of the deficit during the subsequent wet season. Tracking the deficit at the storm event-scale within the wet season reveals a characteristic response in groundwater to increasing rainfall not captured in the seasonal analysis, and may improve estimates of the rainfall required to generate recharge and streamflow on a per-storm basis. Our findings demonstrate the potential for existing public datasets to better capture water partitioning within the subsurface using a combined deficit-recharge approach, though our analysis is currently limited to basins with select characteristics.

The water storage capacity of the root zone determines whether plants survive dry periods and controls the partitioning of precipitation into streamflow and evapotranspiration. It is currently thought that top-down, climatic factors are the primary control on this capacity via their interaction with plant rooting adaptations. However, it remains unclear to what extent bottom-up, geologic factors can provide an additional constraint on storage capacity. Here we use a machine learning approach to identify regions with lower than climatically expected apparent storage capacity. We find that in seasonally dry California these regions overlap with particular geologic substrates. We hypothesize that these patterns reflect diverse mechanisms by which substrate can limit storage capacity, and highlight case studies consistent with limited weathered bedrock extent (melange in the Northern Coast Range), toxicity (ultramafic substrates in the Klamath-Siskiyou region), nutrient limitation (phosphorus-poor plutons in the southern Sierra Nevada), and low porosity capable of retaining water (volcanic formations in the southern Cascades). The observation that at regional scales climate alone does not ‘size’ the root zone has implications for the parameterization of storage capacity in models of plant dynamics (and the interrelated carbon and water cycles), and also underscores the importance of geology in considerations of climate-change induced biome migration and habitat suitability.

Across diverse biomes and climate types, plants use water stored in bedrock to sustain transpiration. Bedrock water storage ($S_{bedrock}$, mm), in addition to soil moisture, thus plays an important role in water cycling and should be accounted for in the context of surface energy balances and streamflow generation. Yet, the extent to which bedrock water storage impacts hydrologic partitioning and influences latent heat fluxes has yet to be quantified at large scales. This is particularly important in Mediterranean climates, where the majority of precipitation is offset from energy delivery and plants must rely on water retained from the wet season to support summer growth. Here we present a simple water balance approach and random forest model to quantify the role of $S_{bedrock}$ on controlling hydrologic partitioning and land surface energy budgets. Specifically, we track evapotranspiration in excess of precipitation and mapped soil water storage capacity ($S_{soil}$, mm) across the western US in the context of Budyko’s water partitioning framework. Our findings indicate that $S_{bedrock}$ is necessary to sustain plant growth in forests in the Sierra Nevada — some of the most productive forests on Earth — as early as April every year, which is counter to the current conventional thought that bedrock is exclusively used late in the dry season under extremely dry conditions. We show that the average latent heat flux used in evapotranspiration of $S_{bedrock}$ can exceed 100 $W/m^{2}$ during the dry season and the proportion of water that returns to the atmosphere would decrease dramatically without access to $S_{bedrock}$.

Extreme weather events are reshaping hydrological cycles across the globe, yet our understanding of the groundwater response to these extremes remains limited. Here we analyze groundwater levels across the South Coast of British Columbia (BC) in the Pacific Northwest with the objective of determining groundwater responses to atmospheric rivers (ARs) and drought. An AR catalogue was derived and associated to local rainfall defining extreme precipitation. Droughts were quantified using dry day metrics, in conjunction with the standardized precipitation index (SPI). From September to January, approximately 40% of total precipitation is contributed by ARs. From April to September, more than 50% of days receive no precipitation, with typically 26 consecutive dry days. We used the autocorrelation structure of groundwater levels to quantify aquifer memory characteristics and identified two distinct clusters. Cluster 1 wells respond to recharge from local precipitation, primarily rainfall, and respond rapidly to both ARs during winter recharge and significant rainfall deficits during summer. Cluster 2 wells are also driven by local precipitation, and are additionally influenced by the Fraser River’s large summer freshet, briefly providing a secondary recharge mechanism to South Coast aquifers. Accordingly, groundwater recessions are offset to later in the summer, contingent on the Fraser River, mediating drought. The results suggest that groundwater memory encapsulates multiple hydrogeological factors, including boundary conditions, influencing the response outcome to extreme events.

Understanding how soil thickness and bedrock weathering vary across ridge and valley topography is needed to constrain the flowpaths of water and sediment production within a landscape. Here, we investigate saprolite and weathered bedrock properties across a ridge-valley system in the Northern California Coast Ranges, USA, where topography varies with slope aspect such that north facing slopes have thicker soils and are more densely vegetated than south facing slopes. We use active source seismic refraction surveys to extend observations made in boreholes to the hillslope scale. Seismic velocity models across several ridges capture a high velocity gradient zone (from 1000 to 2500 m/s) located ~4-13 m below ridgetops, that coincides with transitions in material strength and chemical depletion observed in boreholes. Comparing this transition depth across multiple north and south-facing slopes, we find that the thickness of saprolite does not vary with slope aspects. Additionally, seismic survey lines perpendicular and parallel to bedding planes reveal weathering profiles that thicken upslope and taper downslope to channels. Using a rock physics model incorporating seismic velocity, we estimate the total porosity of the saprolite and find that inherited fractures contribute a substantial amount of pore space in the upper 6 m, and the lateral porosity structure varies strongly with hillslope position. The aspect-independent weathering structure suggests the contemporary critical zone structure at Rancho Venada is a legacy of past climate and vegetation conditions.

Bedrock vadose zone water storage (i.e., rock moisture) dynamics are sparsely observed but potentially key to understanding drought responses. Exploiting a borehole network at a Mediterranean blue oak savanna site-Rancho Venada-we document how water storage capacity in a deeply weathered bedrock profile regulates woody plant water availability and groundwater recharge. The site is in the Northern California Coast Range within steeply dipping turbidites. In a wet year (water year 2019; 647 mm of precipitation), rock moisture was quickly replenished to a characteristic storage capacity, recharging groundwater that emerged at springs to generate streamflow. In the subsequent rainless summer growing season, rock moisture was depleted by about 93 mm. In two drought years that followed (212 and 121 mm of precipitation) the total amount of rock moisture gained each winter was about 54 and 20 mm, respectively, and declines were observed exceeding these amounts, resulting in progressively lower rock moisture content. Oaks, which are rooted into bedrock, demonstrated signs of water stress in drought, including reduced transpiration rates and extremely low water potentials. In the 2020-2021 drought, precipitation did not exceed storage capacity, resulting in variable belowground water storage, increased plant water stress, and no recharge or runoff. Rock moisture deficits (rather than soil moisture deficits) explain these responses.

Unlike streamflow, which can be sampled in aggregate at the catchment outlet, evapotranspiration (ET) is spatially dispersed, challenging large-scale age estimation. Here, we introduce an approach for constraining the age of ET via mass balance and present the minimum flux-weighted age of ET across the continental US using distributed, publicly available water flux datasets. The lower-bound constraint on ET age can be calculated by assuming that ET is preferentially sourced from the most recent precipitation through a last-in, first-out algorithm. From 2012-2017, ET was at least several months old across large areas of the western continental US, including in Mediterranean and (semi-)arid climate zones and shrub and evergreen needleleaf plant communities. The primary limitation of this approach is that it provides only a minimum flux-weighted average age to satisfy mass balance of outgoing fluxes; true ET fluxes are composed of distributions of ages and may be composed of much older water. The primary advantage of the approach is that flux timeseries of precipitation and ET are sufficient to constrain ET age, and model parameterization is unnecessary. ET ages can be used to validate tracer-aided and modeling approaches and inform studies of biogeochemistry, water-rock interactions, and plant water sourcing under drought.

Understanding how soil thickness and bedrock weathering vary across ridge and valley topography is needed to constrain the flowpaths of water and sediment within a landscape. Here, we investigate how soil and weathered bedrock properties vary across a ridge-valley system in the Northern California Coast Ranges where topography varies with slope aspect such that north facing slopes, which are more densely vegetated, are steeper. In this study, we use seismic refraction surveys to extend observations made in boreholes and soil pits to the hillslope scale and identify that while soils are thicker on north facing slopes, the thickness of weathered bedrock does not vary with slope aspect. We estimate the porosity of the weathered bedrock and find that it is several times the annual rainfall, indicating that water storage is not limited by the available pore space, but rather the amount of precipitation delivered. Bedding-parallel and bedding-perpendicular seismic refraction surveys reveal weathering profiles that are thickest upslope and taper downslope to channels. We do not find a clear linear scaling relationship between depth to bedrock and hillslope length, which may be due to local variation in incision rate or bedrock hydraulic conductivity. Together, these findings, which suggest that the aspect-independent weathering profile structure is a legacy of past climate and vegetation conditions and that weathering varies strongly with hillslope position, have implications for hydrologic processes across this landscape.

Water age and flow pathways should be related; however, it is still generally unclear how integrated catchment runoff generation mechanisms result in streamflow age distributions at the outlet. Here, we combine field observations of runoff generation at the Dry Creek catchment with StorAge Selection (SAS) age models to explore the relationship between streamwater age and runoff pathways. Dry Creek is a 3.5 km2 catchment in the Northern California Coast Ranges with a Mediterranean climate, and, despite an average rainfall of ~1,800 mm/yr, is an oak savannah due to the limited water storage capacity. Runoff lag to peak—after initial seasonal wet-up—is rapid (~1-2 hours), and total annual streamflow consists predominantly of saturation overland flow, based on field mapping of saturated extents and an inferred runoff threshold for the expansion of saturation extent beyond the geomorphic channel. SAS modeling based on daily isotope sampling reveals that streamflow is typically older than one day. Because streamflow is mostly overland flow, this means that a significant portion of overland flow must not be event-rain but instead derive from older, non-event groundwater returning to the surface, consistent with field observations of exfiltrating head gradients, return flow through macropores, and extensive saturation days after storm events. We conclude that even in a landscape with widespread overland flow, runoff pathways may be longer and slower than anticipated. Our findings have implications for the assumptions built into widely used hydrograph separation inferences, namely, the assumption that overland flow consists of new (event) water.