Multi-year droughts (MYDs), droughts lasting over a year, can have devastating effects on vegetation. Due to climate change, MYDs are expected to become more frequent and intense, making it crucial to assess and understand their impact on vegetation. In this study, we used ERA5 reanalysis and MODIS remote-sensing data to assess vegetation drought sensitivity and quantify the impact of MYDs on seven different vegetation types in specific regions across the globe. We first assessed drought sensitivity by calculating the Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) anomaly across different drought timescales. Then, we evaluated the impact of MYDs and normal droughts (NDs) by averaging the EVI anomaly during their respective drought periods. Our analysis shows that croplands, urban areas, and shrublands are highly drought-sensitive, while grasslands and trees are less so. As anticipated, the overall impact of MYDs on vegetation was negative, but there were significant spatial and temporal variations, with some areas showing greening. In general, shrublands experienced the largest decrease in greenness, while trees flourished. Natural water availability was the primary factor influencing vegetation response to MYDs. Vegetation in water-limited areas tends to suffer during MYDs, whereas vegetation in energy-limited areas thrives as long as sufficient water is available. Compared to NDs, MYDs typically have a more negative impact on vegetation. Overall, these findings show that there is no unidirectional vegetation response to MYDs and that local factors, like natural energy and water availability, play a vital role in quantifying the complex interplay between drought and its impacts on vegetation.

Global water use for food production needs to be reduced to remain within planetary boundaries, yet the financial feasibility of crucial measures to reduce water use is poorly quantified. Here, we introduce a novel method to compare the costs of water conservation measures with the added value that reallocation of water savings might generate if used for expansion of irrigation. Based on detailed water accounting through the use of a high-resolution hydrology-crop model, we modify the traditional cost curve approach with an improved estimation of demand, increasing marginal cost per water conservation measure combination and add a correction to control for impacts on downstream water availability. We apply the method to three major river basins in the Indo-Gangetic plain (Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra), a major global food producing region but increasingly water stressed. Our analysis shows that at basin level only about 10% (Brahmaputra) to just over 20% (Indus and Ganges) of potential water savings would be realised; the equilibrium price for water is too low to make the majority of water conservation measures cost effective. The associated expansion of irrigated area is moderate, about 7% in the Indus basin, 5% in the Ganges and negligible in the Brahmaputra, but farmers’ gross profit increases more substantially, by 11%. Increasing the volumetric cost of irrigation water influences supply and demand in a similar way and has little influence on water reallocation. Controlling for the impact on return flows is important and more than halves the amount of water available for reallocation.

Changing irrigation water demand (IWD) and supply (IWS) patterns (size and time) under increased climate variability and socio-economic development is significantly effecting the water and food production in the densely populated South Asia (SA). Considering food security paradigm of SA, where rice and wheat are major staple and water-intensive crops, this study aims to investigate the linkages in IWD by crops and IWS by sources (surface and groundwater) using integrated climate and socio-economic projections. The novel aspect of this study is to explore IWD and IWS pattern shifts during critical crop growth stages (CW’s), which is previously less studied with no remarkable research evidence for IGB region. Quantification of shifts in IWD and IWS patterns in future is crucial for long-term integrated water resources and agricultural planning. For this, LPJmL crop-water model is forced with an ensemble of eight state of the art downscaled GCM at 5 arc-min resolution. To assess the combined impacts of climate and socio-economic changes, RCP-SSP framework is used. Our statistical analysis results show that IWD is higher in vegetative stage (CW1) than the reproductive stage (CW2) during both Rabi and Kharif cropping seasons. Water demand is decreasing in future for wheat while increasing for rice. IWS is decreasing substantially from surface while increasing largely from groundwater resources during Rabi. Though, IWS during kharif season is increasing largely from both surface and groundwater resources. There is mismatch in demand and supply as evident from the results suggesting 10 days early wheat planting reduces IWD by 8.0% in F1, 18.7% in F2 and 28.4% in F3 during CW1 with a decrease of 7%, 30 % and 62.56% during F1, F2 and F3 in CW2. Increased IWS with larger contribution from groundwater resources is projected for both crops in future. Water gap between demand and supply during both CW’s in future is increasing for Rabi and Kharif suggesting 10 days early planting of wheat while 20 days delay in kharif planting. Estimation of IWS by sources helped in assessing shifts in percent (%) dependency of water supply from different sources. Moreover, Spatio-temporal mismatch between water demand and supply help exploring geospatially driven water gap trends consequently, highlighting water stress hotspots during CW’s in future.

River systems originating from the Upper Indus Basin (UIB) are dominated by runoff from snow and glacier melt and summer monsoonal rainfall. These water resources are highly stressed as huge populations of people living in this region depend on them, including for agriculture, domestic use, and energy production. Projections suggest that the UIB region will be affected by considerable (yet poorly quantified) changes to the seasonality and composition of runoff in the future, which are likely to have considerable impacts on these supplies. Given how directly and indirectly communities and ecosystems are dependent on these resources and the growing pressure on them due to ever-increasing demands, the impacts of climate change pose considerable adaptation challenges. The strong linkages between hydroclimate, cryosphere, water resources, and human activities within the UIB suggest that a multi- and inter-disciplinary research approach integrating the social and natural/environmental sciences is critical for successful adaptation to ongoing and future hydrological and climate change. Here we use a horizon scanning technique to identify the Top 100 questions related to the most pressing knowledge gaps and research priorities in social and natural sciences on climate change and water in the UIB. These questions are on the margins of current thinking and investigation and are clustered into 14 themes, covering three overarching topics of ‘governance, policy, and sustainable solutions’, ‘socioeconomic processes and livelihoods’, and ‘integrated Earth System processes’. Raising awareness of these cutting-edge knowledge gaps and opportunities will hopefully encourage researchers, funding bodies, practitioners, and policy makers to address them.