The formation of mixed-species groups (MSGs) (also called heterospecific or polyspecific groups) is often considered an anti-predator strategy used in response to an increased predation risk. Recent studies performed in savanna ecosystems in Africa have demonstrated an increased formation of ungulate MSGs in higher predation risk areas. Nevertheless, these studies only considered one predator species (the lion Panthera leo) in evaluating the response to predation risk. Yet, species evolve in multi-predator systems that require prey to respond to multiple sources of risks. Although the importance of incorporating these multiple predators in studies is recognized, there is still little information on the behavioral strategies, including MSG formation, that prey can use to minimize predation risk from multiple predators. In the present study, we analyzed a large dataset of camera trap data (more than 160,000 observations) from five sites located in savanna biome in South Africa. We studied the likelihood of MSGs formation in response to the presence of different predators (lion, leopard (Panthera pardus), spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), and wild dog (Lycaon pictus)). We demonstrated that the probability of forming MSGs increased when (i) the photographic rate of the interacting species increased and (ii) the photographic rate of predators increased. Our results showed that lion and spotted hyena are the predator species most likely to trigger the formation of MSGs for different prey species. These results suggest a “hierarchy of fear” among predators in which both species are the most feared, even for prey species that either predator does not preferentially select. A large number of MSGs formed in the presence of these two predator species included Burchell’s zebras (Equus quagga burchellii), in association with species that have complementary modes of predator detection (e.g. wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) and giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis). Our study highlights the importance of incorporating multiple predators into MSG analyses to better understand ecosystem functioning and, community formation.

Facultative scavenging can be observed across a large range of carnivorous mammals, but is an uncommon behavioural trait in cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus). Very few incidents of cheetahs scavenging have been reported, with no explanation given as to why it may occur. In this paper we provide three more observations of cheetahs scavenging between 2019 and 2023 in three different protected areas in South Africa and Malawi. We suggest a common factor between these observations, namely that all adult individuals involved were temporarily housed in holding enclosures (bomas) during relocation processes and were provisioned with carrion as supplemental feed. The observed scavenging events could also have been influenced by the easy access of food in a situation where food acquisition was potentially difficult (i.e. old age, loss of hunting partner, mother with cubs). We hypothesise that these contributing factors, combined with the prior exposure of the adult individuals to eating carrion, could be a potential explanation for our observations of cheetahs scavenging. These observations provide a basis for further research into cheetah scavenging behaviour and the potential impacts of translocations that require prolonged holding periods on wildlife behaviour post-release. Understanding these behavioural shifts is crucial for cheetah conservation, as successful reintroduction efforts depend on the ability of cheetahs to adapt to new environments and food acquisition strategies.