Temperature is of primary importance for many physical properties in the Martian soil. We measured diurnal and annual soil (and surface) temperature variations using the NASA InSight Mars mission’s HP3 radiometer and thermal probe. At the depth of the probe of 0.5 - 36 cm, an average temperature of 217.5K was found varying by 5.3 - 6.7 K during a sol and by 13.2K during the seasons. The damping of the surface temperature variations in the soil were used to derive a thermal diffusivity of 2.30±0.03×10−8 m2/s for the depth range of the diurnal wave - thermal skin depth 2.5±0.04 cm - and 3.74±0.61×10−8 m2/s for that of the annual wave, with a thermal skin depth of 84±10 cm. The temperatures measured are conducive to the deliquesence of thin films of brines in the soil. These are of astrobiological interest and may explain the formation of the observed cemented duricrust.

The heat flow and physical properties package measured soil thermal conductivity at the landing site in the 0.03 to 0.37 m depth range. Six measurements spanning solar longitudes from 8.0$^\circ$ to 210.0$^\circ$ were made and atmospheric pressure at the site was simultaneously measured using InSight’s Pressure Sensor. We find that soil thermal conductivity strongly correlates with atmospheric pressure. This trend is compatible with predictions of the pressure dependence of thermal conductivity for unconsolidated soils under martian atmospheric conditions, indicating that heat transport through the pore filling gas is a major contributor to the total heat transport. This implies that any cementation or induration of the soil sampled by the experiments must be minimal and that the soil surrounding the mole at depths below the duricrust is unconsolidated. Thermal conductivity data presented here are the first direct evidence that the atmosphere interacts with the top most meter of material on Mars.

InSight’s seismometer package SEIS was placed on the surface of Mars at about 1.2 m distance from the thermal properties instrument HP3 that includes a self-hammering probe. Recording the hammering noise with SEIS provided a unique opportunity to estimate the seismic wave velocities of the shallow regolith at the landing site. However, the value of studying the seismic signals of the hammering was only realised after critical hardware decisions were already taken. Furthermore, the design and nominal operation of both SEIS and HP3 are non-ideal for such high-resolution seismic measurements. Therefore, a series of adaptations had to be implemented to operate the self-hammering probe as a controlled seismic source and SEIS as a high-frequency seismic receiver including the design of a high-precision timing and an innovative high-frequency sampling workflow. By interpreting the first-arriving seismic waves as a P-wave and identifying first-arriving S-waves by polarisation analysis, we determined effective P- and S-wave velocities of vP = 119+45-21 m/s and vS = 63+11-7 m/s, respectively, from around 2,000 hammer stroke recordings. These velocities likely represent bulk estimates for the uppermost several 10’s of cm of regolith. An analysis of the P-wave incidence angles provided an independent vP/vS ratio estimate of 1.84+0.89-0.35 that compares well with the traveltime based estimate of 1.86+0.42-0.25. The low seismic velocities are consistent with those observed for low-density unconsolidated sands and are in agreement with estimates obtained by other methods.

We use the surface temperature response to Phobos transits as observed by a radiometer on board of the InSight lander to constrain the thermal properties of the uppermost layer of regolith. Modeled transit lightcurves validated by solar panel current measurements are used to modify the boundary conditions of a 1D heat conduction model. We test several model parameter sets, varying the thickness and thermal conductivity of the top layer to explore the range of parameters that match the observed temperature response within its uncertainty both during the eclipse as well as the full diurnal cycle. The measurements indicate a thermal inertia of 103+48-24 Jm-2K-1s-1/2 in the uppermost layer of 0.2 to 4 mm, significantly smaller than the thermal inertia of 200 Jm-2K-1s-1/2 derived from the diurnal temperature curve. This could be explained by larger particles, higher density, or a very small amount of cementation in the lower layers.

The InSight mission [1] landed in November 2018 in the Elysium Planitia region [2] bringing the first geophysical observatory to Mars. Since February 2019 the seismometer SEIS [3] has continuously recorded Mars’ seismic activity, and a list of the seismic events is available in the InSight Marsquake Service catalog [4]. In this study, we predict present-day seismic velocities in the Martian interior using the 3D thermal evolution models of [5]. We then use the 3D velocity distributions to interpret seismic observations recorded by InSight. Our analysis is focused on the two high quality events S0173a and S0235b. Both have distinguishable P- and S-wave arrivals and are thought to originate in Cerberus Fossae [6], a potentially active fault system [7]. Our results show that models with a crust containing more than half of the total amount of heat producing elements (HPE) of the bulk of Mars lead to large variations of the seismic velocities in the lithosphere. A seismic velocity pattern similar to the crustal thickness structure is observed at depths larger than 400 km for cases with cold and thick lithospheres. Models, with less than 20% of the total HPE in the crust have thinner lithospheres with shallower but more prominent low velocity zones. The latter, lead to shadow zones that are incompatible with the observed P- and S-wave arrivals of seismic events occurring in Cerberus Fossae, in 20° - 40° epicentral distance. We therefore expect that future high-quality seismic events have the potential to further constrain the amount of HPE in the Martian crust. Future work will combine the seismic velocities distribution calculated in this study with modeling of seismic wave propagation [8, 9]. This will help to assess the effects of a 3D thermal structure on the waveforms and provide a powerful framework for the interpretation of InSight’s seismic data. [1] Banerdt et al., Nat. Geo. 2020; [2] Golombek et al., Nat. Comm. 2020, [3] Lognnoné et al., Nat. Geo. 2020, [4] InSight MQS, Mars Seismic Catalogue, InSight Mission V3, 2020, https://doi.org/10.12686/A8, [5] Plesa et al., GRL 2018, [6] Giardini et al., Nat. Geo. 2020, [7] Taylor et al., JGR 2013, [8] Bozdag et al., SSR 2017, [9] Komatitsch & Tromp, GJI 2002.

The NASA InSight lander successfully placed a seismometer on the surface of Mars. Alongside, a hammering device was deployed that penetrated into the ground to attempt the first measurements of the planetary heat flow of Mars. The hammering of the heat probe generated repeated seismic signals that were registered by the seismometer and can potentially be used to image the shallow subsurface just below the lander. However, the broad frequency content of the seismic signals generated by the hammering extends beyond the Nyquist frequency governed by the seismometer's sampling rate of 100 samples per second. Here, we propose an algorithm to reconstruct the seismic signals beyond the classical sampling limits. We exploit the structure in the data due to thousands of repeated, only gradually varying hammering signals as the heat probe slowly penetrates into the ground. In addition, we make use of the fact that repeated hammering signals are sub-sampled differently due to the unsynchronised timing between the hammer strikes and the seismometer recordings. This allows us to reconstruct signals beyond the classical Nyquist frequency limit by enforcing a sparsity constraint on the signal in a modified Radon transform domain. Using both synthetic data and actual data recorded on Mars, we show how the proposed algorithm can be used to reconstruct the high-frequency hammering signal at very high resolution. In this way, we were able to constrain the seismic velocity of the top first meter of the Martian regolith.