In this study, we present ionospheric observations of field-aligned currents from AMPERE and the ESA Swarm A satellite, in conjunction with high-resolution thermospheric density measurements from accelerometers on board Swarm C and GRACE-FO, for the 3rd and 4th February 2022 geomagnetic storms that led to the loss of 38 Starlink internet satellites. We study the global storm time response of the thermospheric density enhancements, including their growth, decay, and latitudinal distribution. We find that the thermospheric density enhances globally in response to high-latitude energy input from the magnetosphere-solar wind system, and takes at least a full day to recover to pre-storm density levels. We also find that the greatest density perturbations occur at polar latitudes consistent with the magnetosphere-ionosphere dayside cusp, and that there appeared to be a saturation of the thermospheric density during the geomagnetic storm on the 4th. Our results highlight the critical importance of high-latitude ionospheric observations when diagnosing potentially hazardous conditions for low-Earth-orbit satellites.

Equatorial plasma irregularities in the ionospheric F-region proliferate after sunset, causing the most apparent radio scintillation “hot-spot” in geospace. These irregularities are caused by plasma instabilities, and appear mostly in the form of under-densities that rise up from the F-region’s bottomside. After an irregularity production peak at sunset, the amplitude of the resulting turbulence decays with time. Analyzing a large database of plasma irregularity spectra observed by one of the European Space Agency’s Swarm satellites, we have applied a novel but conceptually simple statistical analysis to the data, finding in the process that post-sunset turbulence in the F-region tends to decay with a uniform, scale-independent rate at night, thereby confirming and extending the results from earlier case studies. Our results should be of utility for large-scale space weather modelling efforts that are unable to resolve turbulent effects.

Using a large dataset of ground-based GNSS scintillation observations coupled with in-situ particle detector data, we perform a statistical analysis of both the input energy flux from precipitating particles, and the observed prevalence of density irregularities in the northern hemisphere cusp. By examining geomagnetic activity trends in the two databases, we conclude that the occurrence of irregularities in the cusp grows increasingly likely during storm-time, whereas the precipitating particle energy flux does not. We thus find a weak or nonexistent statistical link between geomagnetic activity and precipitating particle energy flux in the cusp. This is a result of a documented tendency for the cusp energy flux to maximize during northward IMF, when density irregularities tend not to be widespread. Their number clearly maximizes during southward IMF. At any rate, even though ionization and subsequent density gradients directly caused by soft electron precipitation in the cusp are not to be ignored for the trigger of irregularities, our results point to the need to scrutinize additional physical processes for the creation of irregularities causing scintillations in and around the cusp. While numerous phenomena known to cause density irregularities have been identified and described, there is a need for a systematic evaluation of the conditions under which the various destabilizing mechanisms become important and how they sculpt the observed ionospheric ‘irregularity landscape’. As such, we call for a quantitative assessment of the role of particle precipitation in the cusp, given that other factors contribute to the production of irregularities in a major way.

This study uses over two years of 16 Hz density measurements, 50 Hz magnetic field data and ROTI data from the Swarm mission to perform long term statistics of plasma structuring in the polar ionosphere. The timeframe covers more than two years near the 24th solar cycle peak. We additionally use three years of data obtained from a timeframe close to solar minimum for discussion. We present power spectral densities (PSD) of electron density irregularities and magnetic field for one-minute intervals. These PSD have been characterized by the probability of a slope steepening, and by integrating the power deposited within frequency intervals corresponding to kilometer scales. For the electron density, we observe seasonal dependencies for both the integrated power and slope characteristics. While the dual slope probability, especially within the polar cap, varies with solar EUV-radiation, the integrated power is strongest around the equinoxes. Additionally, while we found similar results for the slope probability for both hemispheres, the integrated power exhibits strong hemispheric asymmetries with stronger enhancements within local summer in the southern hemisphere. The ROTI data shows a similar seasonal variability as the density PSD integrated power, in both seasonal dependency and interhemispheric variability. However, for the ROTI data the strongest fluctuations were found within the nightside auroral oval and the cusp. For the PSD of the magnetic field data, we obtain the strongest enhancements within the cusp for all seasons and all hemispheres. The fluctuations may indicate an increase in Alfvénic energy associated with a downward Poynting flux.

As a rule, the phase velocity of unstable Farley-Buneman waves is found not to exceed the ion-acoustic speed, cs. However, there are known exceptions: under strong electric field conditions, much faster Doppler shifts than expected cs values are sometimes observed with coherent radars at high latitudes. These Doppler shifts are associated with narrow spectral width situations. To find out how much faster than cs these Doppler shifts might be, we developed a proper cs model as a function of altitude and electric field strength based on ion frictional heating and on a recently developed empirical model of the electron temperature under strong electric field conditions. Motivated by the ‘narrow fast’ observations, we then explored how ion drifts in the upper part of the unstable region could add to the Doppler shift observed with coherent radars. While there can be no ion drift contribution for the most unstable modes, and therefore no difference with cs for such modes, under strong electric field conditions, a large ion drift contribution of either sign needs to be added to the Doppler shift of more weakly unstable modes, turning them into ‘fast-‘ or ‘slow-’ narrow spectra. Particularly between 110 and 115 km, the ion drift can alter the Doppler shift of the more weakly unstable modes by several 100 m/s, to the point that their largest phase velocities could approach the ambient E x B drift itself.

We present an investigation of polar cap plasma structure lifetimes. We analyze both simulated data from ionospheric models (International Reference Ionosphere model and Mass Spectrometer Incoherent Scatter model) and in-situ data from the Swarm satellite mission (the 16 Hz Advanced Plasma Density data set). We find that the theoretical prediction that E-region conductance is a predictor of F-region polar cap plasma structure lifetimes is indeed supported by both in-situ-based observations and by ionospheric models. In-situ plasma structure lifetimes correlate well with the ratio of F- to E-region conductance. We present explicit predictions of small scale (~1 km) structure lifetimes, which range from less than 1 hour during local summer to around 3 hours during local winter. We highlight a large discrepancy between the observational and theoretical scale-dependency of decay due to diffusion.

The Australian NWC (North West Cape) signal transmitter is known to strongly interfere with the topside ionosphere. We analyze 456 conjunctions between Swarm A, B and NWC, in addition to 58 conjunctions between NorSat-1 and NWC. The in-situ measurements provided by these satellites include the 16 Hz Swarm Advanced Plasma density dataset, and the novel 1000 Hz plasma density measurements from the m-NLP system aboard NorSat-1. We subject the data to a detailed PSD analysis and subsequent superposed epoch analysis. This allows us to present comprehensive statistics of the NWC-induced plasma fluctuations, both their scale-dependency, and their climatology. The result should be seen in the context of VLF signal transmitter-induced plasma density fluctuations, where we find counter-evidence for the existence of turbulent structuring induced by the NWC transmitter.

Electromagnetic energy carried by magnetohydrodynamic modes is an important mechanism in the energy transfer between the magnetosphere and the ionosphere. Through wave reflection in the ionosphere, Alfvén waves are known to carry field-aligned currents, and thus play an important role in the dynamics of the ionosphere-magnetosphere coupling. The role of Hall conductance in this interplay has been explored in magneto-hydrodynamic models of the ionosphere, but has hitherto not been observed in-situ. We use five years of observations from the Swarm mission to shed light on this interplay. We present the high-latitude climatology of both the measured Poynting flux and the measured Alfvén wave reflection coefficient. Our results indicate that high-energy deeply penetrating precipitation, which directly leads to strongly enhanced Hall conductance, is an important cause of positively interfering Alfvén wave reflection. We present such observational evidence, and with that, suggest that Hall conductance is substantially more important in the ionospheric wave reflection climatology than hitherto believed.